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Motivation for travel in ancient times.

The beginning of the history of travel should be traced back to the time when the process of human separation began to take place.

Motivation for travel of primitive people

The origin of man remains a subject of much controversy to this day. But among the many hypotheses (the main ones among them: creationism, panspermia, evolution and involution), a fundamental point can be highlighted: movement (movement) played one of the decisive, leading roles in the origin and / or development of homo sapiens.

The idea that existed from ancient times, later brought to a scientific form by S. Arrhenius, that the embryos of living beings (spores of life) are scattered everywhere in the world space, transferred from one celestial body to another, made it possible to explain the origin of life on Earth.
If we take the above-mentioned concept of panspermia or one of its varieties as the basis for the origin of life on Earth: the hypothesis that people are descendants of settlers from other worlds, then the emergence of the earth’s human population is directly related to a “journey” on a cosmic scale.

The prophets of some religions, according to beliefs, are considered to have “come from the star” (for example, Zarathustra - Sirius) to give people knowledge about the true structure of the universe, about the One God, about the Universal Mind.
The theory of evolution leads us to the fact that in order to survive and preserve one’s gene pool in a changing and not always hospitable and comfortable world, a person was forced to be “on the march” for quite a considerable time, to migrate. And the settlement of people all over the planet is a brilliant confirmation of this.

According to recent archaeological discoveries, Neanderthals settled Europe between 200 and 100 thousand years ago. During the cold phases (glacial advance), Neanderthals in their movements reached the territories of modern Iraq, as well as the Eastern Mediterranean. About 80 thousand years ago, in the Middle East, there was a “meeting” of Neanderthals - immigrants from Europe - and the ancestors of homo sapiens who migrated from Africa. The second migration wave of homo sapiens began its movement 60-50 thousand years ago again to the north: towards the Red Sea, and further, to the Hindustan region, and from there, possibly to Australia. The third wave of homo sapiens - settlers - only 10-20 thousand years later moved again to Europe, where they settled. This is confirmed by finds in caves in Swabia and in the upper reaches of the Danube. Once again there was a meeting between Neanderthals and representatives of the order Homo sapiens, whose development paths, as genetic scientists suggest, diverged about 600 thousand years ago. The “meeting” of these two branches of intelligent beings ended with the Neanderthals “disappearing” from the historical arena. Why did this happen? After all, the culture of the Neanderthals was practically in no way inferior to the culture of the aliens - homo sapiens. Their weapons may have been even more advanced. They had funeral rites. The development of decorative art is evidenced by numerous bone decorations.

As an explanation for this phenomenon, we can cite, in our opinion, the most humane theory. Infant mortality among Neanderthals was only 2% higher than among representatives of homo sapiens, and this seemingly insignificant statistical value could lead to the fact that in 30 generations Neanderthals became extinct even without any “genocide” on the part of human ancestors.

According to two main concepts based on evolutionary theory, the ancestral home of man can be considered either several centers (polycentrism) or one (monocentrism). But, despite the lack of unity regarding the location of the cradle of humanity, scientists believe that it happened in the Old World. But both Americas, Australia, and Oceania were eventually “inhabited” by man.
For humanity to survive and develop, it was necessary to master the ecumene. Herodotus, Pliny the Elder, Strabo, Arrian, Polybius and many other ancient scientists wrote about how this happened. Modern scientists have not avoided the problem of paleoexpansion: D.N. Anuchin, V. Brooks, A.B. Ditmar, L.A. Elnitsky, R.T. Podolny, M. Riemschneider, A.B. Snisarenko, H. Hanks, Yu.B. Tsirkin, I.Sh. Shifman and others.
One can only guess about the global nature of trade paleocontacts. It is obvious that already in the megalithic period there was a “pan-European market”, and the beginnings of intercontinental Eurasian exchange appeared. The primitive “maps” that indicated the safest and most convenient routes could not survive until modern times, but such maps undoubtedly existed.

Confirming the “challenge-response” theory of the outstanding English historian A. J. Toynbee, we can state that people made many kilometers of sea voyages back in ancient times. “Absence of challenge means absence of growth and development. Stimuli of growth can be divided into two main types: stimuli of the natural environment and stimuli of the human environment,” wrote A. J. Toynbee. Finding themselves in unfavorable climatic or social conditions, people were forced to challenge both the vast continental spaces and the vast expanses of the ocean to preserve their society.

The settlement of all continents (except Antarctica) occurred between 40 and 10 thousand years ago. It is obvious that getting to Australia, for example, was only possible by water. The first settlers appeared on the territory of modern New Guinea and Australia about 40 thousand years ago.
By the time Europeans arrived in America, it was inhabited by a large number of Indian tribes. But to this day, not a single Lower Paleolithic site has been found on the territory of both Americas: North and South. Therefore, America cannot claim to be the cradle of humanity. People appeared here as a result of migrations.

Perhaps the settlement of this continent began about 40-30 thousand years ago, as evidenced by the finds of ancient tools discovered in California, Texas and Nevada. Their age, according to the radiocarbon dating method, is 35-40 thousand years. At that time, the ocean level was 60 m lower than today. Therefore, in place of the Bering Strait, there was an isthmus - Beringia, which connected Asia and America during the Ice Age. Currently, there are “only” 90 km between Cape Seward (America) and Eastern Cape (Asia). This distance was overcome by land by the first settlers from Asia.
In all likelihood, there were two waves of migration from Asia. These were tribes of hunters and gatherers. They crossed from one continent to another, apparently chasing herds of animals, in pursuit of the “meat El Dorado.” Hunting, mostly driven, was carried out on large animals: mammoths, horses (they were found in those days on both sides of the ocean), antelope, bison. They hunted from 3 to 6 times a month, since the meat, depending on the size of the animal, could last the tribe for five to ten days. As a rule, young men were also engaged in individual hunting of small animals.

The first inhabitants of the continent led a nomadic lifestyle. It took “Asian migrants” about 18 thousand years to fully develop the American continent, which corresponds to a change of almost 600 generations. A characteristic feature of the life of a number of American Indian tribes is the fact that the transition to a sedentary life never occurred among them. Until the European conquests, they were engaged in hunting and gathering, and in coastal areas - fishing.

Proof that migration from the Old World took place before the beginning of the Neolithic era is the lack of a potter's wheel, wheeled transport, and metal tools among the Indians (before the arrival of Europeans in America during the period of the Great Geographical Discoveries), since these innovations appeared in Eurasia when the New World was already “isolated” and began to develop independently.
It seems likely that settlement also came from the south of South America. Tribes from Australia could penetrate here, bypassing Antarctica. It is known that Antarctica was by no means always covered with ice. The similarity of representatives of a number of Indian tribes with the Tasmanian and Australoid type is obvious. Even if we adhere to the “Asian” version of the settlement of America, then one does not contradict the other. There is a theory according to which the settlement of Australia was carried out by immigrants from Southeast Asia. It is likely that there was a meeting of two migration flows from Asia in South America.

Melanesians could also make their contribution to the “discovery” and further development of the American continent. Being excellent sailors, they made long “journeys” across the expanses of the Pacific Ocean. The most objective evidence of the relationship between Melanesians and a number of American Indian tribes is their hematological characteristics. One of them includes such an objective indicator as blood type “O”, or “Pacific-American”.
Paleolinguistics also confirms the presence of several language groups on the American continent, some of them with similarities to the Malayo-Polynesian group. In addition, there is evidence of the similarity of the languages ​​of the American Indians with the languages ​​of the Mongols and residents of the Amur region. No matter how contradictory theories about the ancestors of the American Indians may be, they all confirm the truth that the continent was settled as a result of migratory movements from other parts of the globe.

Penetration to another continent - Australia - occurred at the turn of the Paleolithic and Mesolithic. Because of the lower sea levels, there must have been “island bridges,” where settlers didn’t just go into the unknown of the open ocean, but moved to another island that they either saw or knew existed. Moving in this way from one island chain of the Malay and Sunda archipelago to another, people eventually found themselves in a certain endemic kingdom of flora and fauna - Australia. Presumably, the ancestral home of Australians was also Asia. But the migration took place so long ago that it is impossible to detect any close relationship between the language of the Australians and any other people. Their physical type, as is known, was close to the Tasmanians, but the latter were completely exterminated by Europeans by the middle of the 19th century.

The similarity of the ancient Australians with the peoples of Southeast Asia can be traced through some characteristic features of the tools of the late Paleolithic and Mesolithic eras of Asian peoples. Further contacts of Australians with the Papuan-Melanesian peoples were not permanent. The latter introduced the Australians to bows and arrows and boats with a balance beam. But largely due to the fact that the Australians led a nomadic (nomadic) lifestyle, they could not maintain regular contacts with the Papuans and Melanesians. They could, for example, during their arrival on the mainland move to other territories.
Australian society, due to its isolation, has largely stagnated. The aborigines of Australia did not know agriculture, and they only managed to domesticate the dingo dog. For tens of thousands of years, they never emerged from the infant state of humanity; time seemed to stand still for them. Europeans found Australians at the level of hunters and gatherers, wandering from place to place as the feeding landscape became scarce.

The starting point in the exploration of Oceania was Indonesia. It was from here that settlers headed through Micronesia and Melanesia to the central regions of the Pacific Ocean. First they explored the islands of Tonga and Samoa, then the Tuamotu archipelago, and then the Marquesas Islands. Their migration processes were apparently “facilitated” by the presence of a group of coral islands between the Marshall Islands and Hawaii. Nowadays these islands are located at a depth of 500 to 1000 m. The “Asian trace” is indicated by the similarity of the Polynesian and Micronesian languages ​​with the group of Malay languages.

There is also an “American” theory of the settlement of Oceania. Its founder is the monk X. Zuniga. He is at the beginning of the 19th century. published a scientific work in which he proved that in the tropical and subtropical latitudes of the Pacific Ocean currents and winds from the east dominate, so the South American Indians, “relying” on the forces of nature, were able to reach the islands of Oceania using balsa rafts. The likelihood of such travel has been confirmed by many travelers. But the palm in confirming the theory of the settlement of Polynesia from the east rightfully belongs to the outstanding Norwegian scientist-traveler Thor Heyerdahl, who in 1947, just like in ancient times, managed to get from the shores of the city of Callao on the balsa raft “Kon-Tiki” ( Peru) to the Tuamotu Islands.
Apparently, both theories are correct. And the settlement of Oceania was carried out by settlers from both Asia and America.

One of the most outstanding peoples, prone to travel on a planetary scale, were the Malays. They are from the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. until the end of the 1st millennium AD. e. crossed the Indian Ocean, colonizing the island of Madagascar. Some of the settlers came even from the islands of Java and Sumatra. The Malgash, the modern inhabitants of Madagascar, speak a language of the Malayo-Polynesian group and belong to the southern branch of the Mongoloid race. The methods of cultivating the land of the Malgash and the Malays, the types of dwellings, and many customs are the same. This applies not least to the tradition of seafaring. Every family living in coastal areas has a boat. And the separation of a son begins not with a marriage ceremony, but with the construction of a boat for his future family.

Why was Madagascar not settled by inhabitants of the African continent? Most likely, the Africans, who traditionally were not very strong sailors, were unable to overcome the treacherous and turbulent current in the Mozambique Channel, which separates the island from the mainland, which reaches a speed of 5 knots (about 10 km/h). At the same time, in the Southern Hemisphere there are favorable conditions for sailing to the West. A smooth trade wind and a constant following current help to cross the ocean. Therefore, the island was inhabited by Malays, who traveled tens of thousands of kilometers, and not by Africans, for whom even tens of kilometers turned out to be insurmountable.

The end of the Ice Age led to climatic and geographical changes, and as a consequence, biological and social changes. Due to warming, not only the level of the world's oceans has risen, but also the flora and fauna have begun to change. A number of animals that were unable to adapt to new climatic conditions and a new food supply died out, others migrated. Accordingly, following animal migrations, human migrations began (continued).
Numerous archaeological finds indicate prehistoric sea travel in the Aegean basin. Deep-sea hunting was also developed among the peoples who lived on the coasts of Ireland and Scotland about 7 thousand years ago (bones of deep-sea fish that are not suitable for coastal shallow waters were found in large quantities in these areas). These people had to go out into the open ocean, moving 50-60 km from the coast. It should be noted that the commonality of the megalithic cultures of Europe (finds in modern Portugal, England, France, Northern Scandinavia, Spain and Ireland) suggests that there were well-established connections, mainly maritime, between its various regions.
Migration processes stimulated the development of specific knowledge in primitive society. This included knowledge of geography, the development of the calendar, botany and zoology, as well as the rudiments of mechanics.

This knowledge was especially necessary when creating vehicles. It is known that even during the Mesolithic period, peoples inhabiting different continents went out into the open ocean. For sea hunting and fishing, it was necessary to build reliable boats and catamarans. Nomadic peoples engaged in transhumance cattle breeding had to have durable carts for transporting household belongings.
The excellent seaworthiness of ancient watercraft has been brilliantly confirmed in our time, when paleotransoceanic voyages on ships designed based on ancient drawings and archaeological finds were repeated: for example, the voyages of Tim Severin or Thor Heyerdahl.

Numerous monuments of the artistic culture of primitive times are well known, indicating that the sense of beauty was not alien to our ancestors. They were wonderful artists, among them were sculptors and musicians. The beginnings of theater appear. Surely, hunters who went far from the sites could observe something extraordinary, which they tried to acquaint their fellow tribesmen with, not only verbally, but also visually. Therefore, we can say that travel in ancient times contributed to the formation of artistic culture. It is obvious that not only technological innovations underlay the interaction of primitive groups. There was also the influence of cultural standards, and perhaps even standards. It seems that standards and standards that performed a prestigious function also became widespread. Intellectual influence arises at the level of beliefs and magical actions. Surely, a fashion phenomenon based on social psychology has also begun to take shape.

A reflection of constant earthly travel in the beliefs of ancient people was the posthumous “journey of the soul,” which one of the heroes of Carlos Castaneda, a modern American writer and philosopher, very correctly characterized as the “ultimate journey.” This phenomenon is reflected in various animistic beliefs and rituals. The idea that the deceased might need a lot on his journey was evident throughout. An echo of these primitive rites is Lucian's sarcastic mention that a honey cake was intended for Cerberus, which was placed in the coffin, and a coin placed in the mouth of the deceased was supposed to serve as payment to Charon for transporting the soul through Hades. Even in modern times, the Japanese lend money to return it with huge interest in the next world, believing in the posthumous “journey of the soul.”
The Etruscan goddess of death Laza and the demon of death Tukhulka had wings, which implied their flight along with the souls of the dead to the underworld.
The souls of the deceased Vikings “took” with them their servants and horses, boats and money, the feet of the deceased were always shod in helsko (a type of special footwear) for the difficult journey. In Bengal, coins were placed on the funeral pyre to appease the demons standing at the entrance to the Land of Shadows. The ancient Prussians put coins in the pockets of the deceased so that he could buy sweets during a difficult journey, etc. This aspect of animism can be found in Polynesia, and in Hindustan, and among the Indians of both Americas. Myths were formed about the journey of the soul to the Land of the Dead.

In the earliest cultural layers one must look for the origins of the doctrine of the transmigration of souls. This doctrine forms an essential part of primitive "philosophy", saying that the soul can transmigrate into material objects, starting with the human body and ending with pieces of stone or wood. Among the North American Indian tribes, the Taculli and Algonquins, at the beginning of the 20th century. they tried to bury dead children near the road so that their souls could pass into passing mothers and be born again in this way. In Ancient Egypt, the route to the afterlife was formulated by sacred texts that summarized the knowledge of the essence of the entire world, visible and invisible. The echo of this ancient knowledge was first captured in the “Pyramid Texts”, carved on the walls of the burial chambers of the Pyramid of Unas - 24th century. BC.

In China, care for the deceased was manifested in the following: so that in the afterlife the soul of the deceased would not lack anything, relatives placed figurines depicting various utensils and even buildings in the grave. Followers of the philosophical teachings of Taoism carried a paper crane, a winged messenger of heaven, ahead of the funeral procession. When the crane was burned, the soul of the deceased on its back ascended to heaven.
The doctrine of the endless transmigration of the soul (samsara) is also characteristic of many religions, including those still practiced today: Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.
In Zoroastrian teachings, the dead go to the afterlife along the Chinvat Bridge (or Chinvato-persto - Separator Crossing). Chinvat is built from rays of light. An analogue of this “Separator Passage” can also be found in ancient Slavic mythology. The Slavs perceived the rainbow as a heavenly bridge. The Slavs celebrated radnets or radunitsa - “Naviy-day”, parental day, the day of remembrance of the dead. The ancient Slavs believed that the soul of the deceased makes its last journey along the rainbow (paradise arc): from Yavi to Nav (the other world).

Ancient history is still fraught with many mysteries, which indicate that the development of homo sapiens clearly did not always have a linear evolutionary character. Special studies and its involution are needed.

Prehistoric man was not as primitive as is sometimes imagined. He managed to populate all the continents except Antarctica, overcoming sea barriers, mountain ranges, the spaces of the Eurasian steppes and the northern circumpolar regions. With the improvement of its economic activities, the social structure of primitive groups became more complex, and the motivation for migration changed. But migrations themselves were an integral part of the way of life in the primitive era.

Motivation travel primitive of people. Origin person causes much controversy to this day. But among many hypotheses. The impact of tourism on economic development.

Motivation travel primitive of people. Origin person causes much controversy to this day. But among the many hypotheses... more ».

In children aged 1.5–2 months, social motivation. The most important pattern in development motivation is the transition to actually operating motives– it is this process that determines socialization person is motive.
Incentives can be any goods that satisfy significant needs person, if their receipt involves work.

Main levers motivation- incentives and motives. An incentive is a material reward of a certain form, for example wages.
4) need for respect (need for self-respect and respect for others of people, prestige, fame, etc.)

Factors in behavior person take into account procedural theories motivation.
According to the theory, the presence of an active need is not the only necessary condition motivation person to achieve a certain goal.

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Finds from the past

Archaeologists learn about the past by excavating ruins of ancient structures or places where people lived long ago. They examine the objects they find to piece together a mosaic of the past.

People have always been interested in history, but for centuries they drew knowledge about antiquity mainly from myths and legends and did not particularly strive to find material evidence from past times. At the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries. Rich Europeans began to travel and collect antiques. They began searching for them in Greece and Rome, where ancient buildings and sculptures were in plain sight. But, for example, in the Middle East, many cities were completely buried underground until Europeans began searching for antiquities.

This head of a young woman (less than 4 cm in height), found in Brassanpuis (France), is perhaps the oldest sculptural portrait. It was made from ivory about 24,000 years ago.

People began to explore the past, and the first “archaeologists” began to wander the world. Based on clues from ancient books, they began excavations, extracting many ancient objects from the ground. Unfortunately, many of the finds were damaged, but the first archaeologists obtained remarkable information about ancient civilizations.

Archaeologists excavating an ancient settlement carefully study every layer of soil they remove in search of antiquities.

This woman's body was well preserved due to the high acidity of the peat bog where it was found. Human remains provide information about how people ate and what diseases they suffered from.

One of the first archaeologists was the German merchant Heinrich Schliemann (1822–1890). After carefully reading the epic poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey” by the ancient Greek poet Homer, which described two lost cities, Troy and Mycenae, he decided to go in search of these cities. In 1870, near the Dardanelles in Asia Minor, he discovered Troy. In 1876, Heinrich Schliemann discovered the fortified city of Mycenae buried in a hill. In addition, in Mycenae he found many golden objects, which testified to the countless treasures of ancient Greek civilization.

Archaeologists have also been able to trace the history of writing by discovering clay tablets with ancient writings. One of these finds was the library of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, who ruled in the 7th century. BC. . This library contained 20,000 tablets with ancient inscriptions. When the texts were deciphered, scientists were able to read historical evidence about the life of disappeared civilizations and the social system of those times.

Today, archaeologists can use scientific methods to very accurately determine the age of an object. Without archaeologists, our knowledge of history would be very poor, and the lost cities of the ancient world might remain buried forever.

Every year a new layer of bark and sapwood grows on a living tree. When a tree is cut down, the layers of sapwood are visible in the cut as rings.

If you count the rings, you will know how old this tree is.

Unlike the tombs of other Egyptian pharaohs, all the buried treasures were preserved. The king wore a golden mask, and his mummy rested in three golden coffins, nested one inside the other. A separate room contained items that the pharaoh might need in the afterlife.

First people

Human Origins. Taming the Fire

The first humanoid creatures, or hominids, appeared on Earth more than 4 million years ago. In different parts of Africa, the remains of apes called australopithecines were found. In Hadar (Ethiopia), the skeleton of one of the individuals was discovered, which was named “Lucy” (however, it later turned out that the skeleton belonged to a male). Scientists were able to find out that although Lucy resembled a chimpanzee, she was upright and walked on two legs. These are characteristic signs of a humanoid creature.

Australopithecus (1 to 1.5 m tall) with long arms and short legs looked like an ape, but walked upright. He had a low forehead and a small brain.

Humans, apes, and apes all descended from the same ancestor. It could have been Aegyptopithecus, or "Egyptian ape." She lived in Egypt about 35 million years ago and climbed trees on all fours.

Of all the descendants of this mammal, only humans developed bipedalism, that is, the ability to walk upright on two legs. Their hands were freed up and could be used for other purposes. About 2.5 million years ago in Africa appeared Homo habilis, a "handy man" who could use simple stone tools, rather than just his own teeth or hands, to kill and skin animals.

Homo habilis was probably the first man.

Taming the Fire

A more intelligent species of primitive man, Homo erectus or Homo erectus, first appeared in Africa approximately 1.8 million years ago. He was taller and slimmer than Homo habills, but with strongly protruding jaws and massive brow ridges. Able to move quickly on the ground, Homo erectus became the first hominid to leave Africa and travel north and east. His remains were found in China, on the island of Java and in Europe. Chewing raw meat was not easy for human ancestors; millennia passed before they learned to soften food over fire. Homo erectus already cooked on fire.

These hominids lived in groups. Males hunted, while females collected edible plants and took care of children. Animal bones found in China at one of the sites indicate that primitive people successfully hunted elephants, rhinoceroses, wild horses, bison, camels, wild boars, rams and antelopes. Hunting such large animals could not have been successful with the primitive weapons they possessed, unless it was assumed that Homo erectus were much smarter than their ancestors. It is possible that they had the rudiments of speech.

These hunters and gatherers constantly moved from place to place. At night they slept in caves or built primitive huts from branches and animal skins. The females collected wood for the fire. Males made stone tools, including those that could be used to cut up the carcass of a killed animal.

China 500,000 years ago. A group of Homo erectus settles down for the night. A fire was lit, which also helps drive away wild animals, and the meat was cut into pieces.

Homo sapiens

Spread of people. Neanderthals. Rock art

About 750,000 years ago, people resembling modern humans appeared. These were the first Homo sapiens(“reasonable man”) Their remains have been found in Africa, Europe and Asia.

One of the types Homo sapiens there were Neanderthals who appeared more than 200,000 years ago. They got their name from the Neander Valley in Germany, where their bones were found in one of the caves in 1857. Chinless, with heavy jaws and overhanging brow ridges, Neanderthals looked somewhat beast-like, but their brains were larger than those of modern humans.

Neanderthals went extinct about 30,000 years ago. They probably lost to modern man in the struggle for food.

Modern humans, whose scientific name is Homo sapiens sapiens, first appeared about 125,000 years ago and reached Europe 40,000 years ago. They had neither protruding brow ridges nor massive jaws, like the first Homo sapiens. Their faces were distinguished by a high forehead and chin. The brain was larger than that of any of their ancestors, with the exception of Neanderthals. After the disappearance of the Neanderthals, they remained the only people on planet Earth.

Our immediate ancestors Homo sapiens sapiens appeared approximately 125,000 years ago, most likely in Africa, from where they spread throughout the world.

Direction of spread of Homo sapiens sapiens

Rock art

People began drawing and carving on cave walls long before they learned to write. The most famous examples of rock paintings were found in 1940 in France, in the Lascaux cave.

They are made about 18,000 years ago with paints made from natural minerals. For drawing they used sticks or their own palms.

For primitive nomads, life mainly consisted of an endless search for food. Cave paintings and other works of art discovered in caves indicate that they may have had religious beliefs and practices that they believed would help them find food. The rock art was not intended for display. The drawings were made with paints, and sometimes carved into the dark walls and ceilings of caves, where no one could see them.

Artists of the time had to use burning branches to see their creations and ladders to reach high places.

Since the rock paintings were hidden in the depths of the caves, it can be assumed that they served as part of a secret ritual, the purpose of which was to attract good luck in the hunt. People probably believed that by drawing an animal, they could count on prey. It is possible that some of the drawings depict scenes from real life. However, people have been painting and carving on cave walls for 20,000 years, and examples of primitive art have been found in Europe, Africa, Asia, North and South America and Australia. These images allow us to judge changes in climate and environment.

Ancient people left imprints of their hands on the walls. They put their palm to the wall and traced its outline with paints.

Hunters and gatherers

Hunting methods. Gathering. Clothes making

As time passed, hunters became more skilled and used more and more effective weapons. Sometimes they managed to push large prey off a steep cliff, or lure it into a swamp. Once people had speech, they were able to discuss plans for hunting together in detail, which made it more effective.

The Paleolithic era, or Old Stone Age, covers the period from the beginning of the use of simple tools (approximately 2.5 million years ago) to the Neolithic, or New Stone Age, when people began to engage in agriculture (12,000 years ago).

The hunters were armed with spears, bows and arrows, knives, and for fishing they made fishhooks. People studied their surroundings to understand where herds might gather or where prey might be hiding. Knowing the environment saved a lot of time and effort and made life easier.

Most hunter-gatherers lived in small groups of two or three families, which could easily subsist on large prey such as mammoth or bison. Each group probably had a leader who made decisions and made plans.

About 20,000 years ago, the Ice Age lasted on Earth. Huge woolly mammoths were then found in the northern regions. For hunters they served as desired prey.

Hunters armed themselves with wooden spears with sharp stone tips. When throwing, wooden or bone devices and spear throwers were used, which allowed the hunter to throw a spear with greater force. Fishermen caught fish in the lake with a net, and women collected nuts and fruits.

Gathering

Hunting was very important, but plant foods were an essential part of the diet. People found certain types of nuts, fruits and edible herbs. They discovered that bees collected honey, and with it the food became sweeter. People dug up the ground to find roots and tubers of plants. Thanks to plant foods, it was possible to survive difficult times when hunting was unsuccessful. However, the most essential food product remained meat.

Clothes making

Animal skins could be used to make clothing. First, the skin was tanned so that it would not crack. To do this, they stretched it on the ground and scraped it out, removing the fat. Then they smoothed it out with bone tools to make it soft. When the dressing was completed, pieces of the desired shape were cut out of the skin with a stone knife. Holes were made along the edges so that the pieces could be connected to each other, and they were sewn together with a bone needle, using animal tendons as threads.

In the evening the whole group gathered at the parking lot. Shelters were made from animal skins stretched over wooden frames. Mammoth hunters built conical-shaped dwellings from the bones of these animals. They also built huts from intertwined branches, forming a continuous tent, inside of which there was a frame made of thick sticks. Animal skins could be placed on top of the branches.

Temporary shelters were often arranged in a circle to better protect against wild animals and bad weather. The fire scared away the animals.

It is known that the distinguishing feature of the ape from the representative of the human race is the mass of the brain, namely 750 g. This is how much is necessary for a child to master speech. Ancient people spoke in a primitive language, but their speech is a qualitative difference between the higher nervous activity of humans and the instinctive behavior of animals. The word, which became a designation for actions, labor operations, objects, and subsequently general concepts, acquired the status of the most important means of communication.

Stages of human development

It is known that there are three of them, namely:

• the oldest representatives of the human race;
• modern generation.

This article is devoted exclusively to the 2nd of the above stages.

History of Ancient Man

About 200 thousand years ago, the people we call Neanderthals appeared. They occupied an intermediate position between representatives of the most ancient family and the first modern man. Ancient people were a very heterogeneous group. A study of a large number of skeletons led to the conclusion that, in the process of the evolution of Neanderthals against the background of structural diversity, 2 lines were determined. The first was focused on powerful physiological development. Visually, the most ancient people were distinguished by a low, strongly sloping forehead, a low back of the head, a poorly developed chin, a continuous supraorbital ridge, and large teeth. They had very powerful muscles, despite the fact that their height was no more than 165 cm. The mass of their brain had already reached 1500 g. Presumably, ancient people used rudimentary articulate speech.

The second line of Neanderthals had more refined features. They had significantly smaller brow ridges, a more developed chin protuberance, and thin jaws. We can say that the second group was significantly inferior in physical development to the first. However, they already showed a significant increase in the volume of the frontal lobes of the brain.

The second group of Neanderthals fought for their existence through the development of intra-group connections in the process of hunting, protection from an aggressive natural environment, enemies, in other words, by combining the forces of individual individuals, and not through the development of muscles, like the first.

As a result of this evolutionary path, the species Homo sapiens appeared, which translates as “Homo sapiens” (40-50 thousand years ago).

It is known that for a short period of time the life of ancient man and the first modern man was closely interconnected. Subsequently, the Neanderthals were finally supplanted by the Cro-Magnons (the first modern people).

Types of ancient people

Due to the vastness and heterogeneity of the group of hominids, it is customary to distinguish the following varieties of Neanderthals:

• ancient (early representatives who lived 130-70 thousand years ago);
• classical (European forms, the period of their existence 70-40 thousand years ago);
• survivalists (lived 45 thousand years ago).

Neanderthals: daily life, activities

Fire played an important role. For many hundreds of thousands of years, man did not know how to make fire himself, which is why people supported the one that was formed due to a lightning strike or a volcanic eruption. Moving from place to place, the fire was carried in special “cages” by the strongest people. If it was not possible to save the fire, then this quite often led to the death of the entire tribe, since they were deprived of a means of heating in the cold, a means of protection from predatory animals.

Subsequently, they began to use it for cooking food, which turned out to be more tasty and nutritious, which ultimately contributed to the development of their brain. Later, people themselves learned to make fire by cutting sparks from stone into dry grass, quickly rotating a wooden stick in their palms, placing one end in a hole in dry wood. It was this event that became one of the most important achievements of man. It coincided in time with the era of great migrations.

The daily life of ancient man boiled down to the fact that the entire primitive tribe hunted. For this purpose, men were engaged in the manufacture of weapons and stone tools: chisels, knives, scrapers, awls. Mostly males hunted and butchered the carcasses of killed animals, that is, all the hard work fell on them.

Female representatives processed skins and collected (fruits, edible tubers, roots, and branches for fire). This led to the emergence of a natural division of labor by gender.

To catch large animals, men hunted together. This required mutual understanding between primitive people. During the hunt, a driving technique was common: the steppe was set on fire, then the Neanderthals drove a herd of deer and horses into a trap - a swamp, an abyss. Next, all they had to do was finish off the animals. There was another technique: they shouted and made noise to drive the animals onto thin ice.

We can say that the life of ancient man was primitive. However, it was the Neanderthals who were the first to bury their dead relatives, laying them on their right side, placing a stone under their head and bending their legs. Food and weapons were left next to the body. Presumably they considered death to be a dream. Burials and parts of sanctuaries, for example, associated with the bear cult, became evidence of the emergence of religion.

Neanderthal tools

They differed slightly from those used by their predecessors. However, over time, the tools of ancient people became more complex. The newly formed complex gave rise to the so-called Mousterian era. As before, tools were made primarily of stone, but their shapes became more diverse, and the turning technique became more complex.

The main weapon preparation is a flake formed as a result of chipping from a core (a piece of flint that has special platforms from which the chipping was carried out). This era was characterized by approximately 60 types of weapons. All of them are variations of 3 main ones: scraper, rubeltsa, pointed tip.

The first is used in the process of butchering an animal carcass, processing wood, and tanning hides. The second is a smaller version of the hand axes of the previously existing Pithecanthropus (they were 15-20 cm in length). Their new modifications had a length of 5-8 cm. The third weapon had a triangular outline and a point at the end. They were used as knives for cutting leather, meat, wood, and also as daggers and dart and spear tips.

In addition to the listed species, Neanderthals also had the following: scrapers, incisors, piercings, notched, and serrated tools.

Bone also served as the basis for their manufacture. Very few fragments of such specimens have survived to this day, and entire tools can be seen even less frequently. Most often these were primitive awls, spatulas, and points.

The tools differed depending on the types of animals that Neanderthals hunted, and, consequently, on the geographical region and climate. Obviously, African tools were different from European ones.

Climate of the area where Neanderthals lived

The Neanderthals were less fortunate with this. They found a strong cold snap and the formation of glaciers. Neanderthals, unlike Pithecanthropus, who lived in an area similar to the African savanna, lived rather in the tundra and forest-steppe.

It is known that the first ancient man, just like his ancestors, mastered caves - shallow grottoes, small sheds. Subsequently, buildings appeared located in open space (the remains of a dwelling made from the bones and teeth of a mammoth were found at a site on the Dniester).

Hunting of ancient people

Neanderthals mainly hunted mammoths. He did not live to this day, but everyone knows what this beast looks like, since rock paintings with its image were found, painted by people of the Late Paleolithic. In addition, archaeologists have found the remains (sometimes even the entire skeleton or carcasses in permafrost soil) of mammoths in Siberia and Alaska.

To catch such a large beast, the Neanderthals had to work hard. They dug pit traps or drove the mammoth into a swamp so that it would get stuck in it, then finish it off.

Also a game animal was the cave bear (it is 1.5 times larger than our brown one). If a large male rose on his hind legs, then he reached 2.5 m in height.

Neanderthals also hunted bison, bison, reindeer, and horses. From them it was possible to obtain not only the meat itself, but also bones, fat, and skin.

Methods of making fire by Neanderthals

There are only five of them, namely:

1. fire plow. This is a fairly fast method, but requires significant physical effort. The idea is to move a wooden stick along the board with a strong pressure. The result is shavings, wood powder, which, due to the friction of wood against wood, heats up and smolders. At this point, it is combined with highly flammable tinder, then the fire is fanned.

2. Fire drill. The most common way. A fire drill is a wooden stick that is used to drill into another stick (a wooden plank) located on the ground. As a result, smoldering (smoking) powder appears in the hole. Next, it is poured onto the tinder, and then the flame is fanned. Neanderthals first rotated the drill between their palms, and later the drill (with its upper end) was pressed into the tree, covered with a belt and pulled alternately on each end of the belt, rotating it.

3. Fire pump. This is a fairly modern, but rarely used method.

4. Fire saw. It is similar to the first method, but the difference is that the wooden plank is sawed (scraped) across the fibers, and not along them. The result is the same.

5. Carving fire. This can be done by hitting one stone against another. As a result, sparks are formed that fall on the tinder, subsequently igniting it.

Finds from the Skhul and Jebel Qafzeh caves

The first is located near Haifa, the second is in the south of Israel. They are both located in the Middle East. These caves are famous for the fact that human remains (skeletal remains) were found in them, which were closer to modern people than to the ancients. Unfortunately, they belonged to only two individuals. The age of the finds is 90-100 thousand years. In this regard, we can say that modern humans coexisted with Neanderthals for many millennia.

Conclusion

The world of ancient people is very interesting and has not yet been fully studied. Perhaps, over time, new secrets will be revealed to us that will allow us to look at it from a different point of view.

Not so long ago, we took a time machine to deep antiquity to trace, together with the baby, how a person gradually acquired and improved. And in this article I invite you to travel back to the prehistoric era. This time the topic of our research will be the fine arts of ancient people, which we will study in joint reflection with the baby, as well as in practice.

Here are the questions we will try to find answers to:

What did primitive people most often depict and why?
what did they draw on when there was no paper?
what did they use instead of paints and brushes?
why and why did a person start drawing in the first place?

And to do this, let’s first, together with the child, immerse ourselves in the atmosphere of primitive times.

The world through the eyes of an ancient man

Become research scientists. Looking at pictures together depicting the life of primitive man, help your child conclude that:
what served as his home
what kind of food did people eat back then?
and how they got it.

Better yet, try with your child to look at the world through the eyes of an ancient man, mentally reincarnating as him. Start thinking like him. And then your child will become a real pioneer.

Tell your child this: “Once upon a time, a long time ago, there was nothing that you are used to, nothing at all that was made by human hands (list). There was only nature: fields, forests, mountains, rivers and lakes. Imagine that you are a person who was destined to be born during this period. What difficulties might you encounter? How and where will you escape from bad weather? Where will you spend the night so as not to freeze?”

Let your child offer as many options as possible. Perhaps there will be a cave among them. Model each “discovery,” helping the child to feel even better the atmosphere of the primitive era. It’s a good cave if you throw a blanket over the table and crawl under it, together with your baby!

How did primitive man get food?

Continue asking questions: “What would you eat, where would you get your food? After all, there were no shops then. True, but there were rivers and lakes with a lot of fish in them! Can a forest nourish a person? Certainly. There are berries, mushrooms, and edible herbs in the forest. But you won’t last long on them alone. To have strength, you need to eat meat. Can a person get it with his bare hands? What would you come up with if you were a member of a primitive society? Make devices for catching animals? Right! Which ones?”

If he doesn’t guess, show your child pictures of bows, arrows, and spears. Now, together with him, make smaller models of these same weapons, attaching more or less sharp stones with a rope to a stick (arrows and spears) and connecting the two ends of a flexible branch with a rope or a bunch of long grass (bow).

We learn to cook “primitively” and endure bad weather

Now you can discuss ancient man’s cooking with your child by asking the following questions: “What happens if you eat raw meat? You won't feel very good, okay? But there was no stove then. What can replace it in natural conditions? That’s right, a fire or a hearth.”

Scatter pencils that imitate firewood and stones across the carpet. Walk through the forest and collect these resources that are so important for survival. Build a “hearth” in your “cave”. Fire can be imitated with pieces of red and orange fabric. You can “fry” a piece of “meat” made from plasticine or salt dough on our “bonfire.”

Ask your child how else animals can help a person survive. Ask more leading questions so that the child makes discoveries on his own, activate his thinking and creative abilities: “How would you escape the cold in winter? After all, you can’t sit in a cave in front of a fire all winter. That's right, you need warm clothes! Who doesn't care about the cold? Of course, animals with their heat-retaining fur! That’s why people figured out how to make clothes from warm skins.” Dress your baby in pieces of fabric that look like animal fur.

First drawings: from theory to practice

Well, now that the child has learned the basics of life of primitive people, ask him: “What do you think, did ancient people know how to draw? If yes, then how - good or not so good?
Listen to the child's reasoning, and then tell him how the first drawing appeared. The caveman ran his fingers through the damp clay and noticed five tracks in which he saw different images, including intricate tracks of animals.

Invite your child to create his first “drawing”. If there is no clay, let him run his fingers through the sand.

Scientists called these drawings “pasta.” Ask an aspiring “ancient artist” why he thinks? What would he call them, maybe waves, snakes, paths, ribbons, curled antelope horns, curly strands of hair, cream on a cake, or slides in a water park?

Today we helped the child experience the life of primitive man, and also touched on the initial stage of the formation of the fine arts of ancient people. In the next article, we will have to become primitive artists ourselves, having first mastered in detail the basics of prehistoric creativity.

Oksana Yaremchuk, additional education teacher, psychologist

1.1. Prerequisites for the emergence and development of travel

The need for movement 1 and travel 2 arose among our ancestors in ancient times. Moreover, the term “travel” can be interpreted literally, since “acquaintance” with new territories was vital.

The movements (migration) of primitive groups, or ethnosocial organisms (ESO), could be of the following nature:

1. Intra-ethnic migrations, when movements occurred within the territory occupied by the EDF.
2. Ethno-emigration, in which separate ESO groups took part. They went beyond the habitat of their collective and then lost their structural connection with it.
3. Migration of the ESO itself. This was the most common type of migration in ancient times. He, in turn, could have the character:

ESO relocation - moving it to a new territory;
- resettlement of the ESO - movement of one or several parts of the primitive collective to another territory without loss of structural ties with the ESO;
- ESO segmentation - in form representing the same thing as resettlement, but with the simultaneous creation of migrants’ own ESO. ESO segmentation can also be characterized as ethnic partiality. Sometimes, as a result of ethno-migration separation, the ESO itself could collapse (disintegrate).

The primitive collective, living in a clearly defined territory, rarely violated its borders - this could lead to clashes with other tribes, whose territory it invaded. The territory inhabited by the ESO could not be small in size, since it was a “feeding landscape” for people - the level of the “appropriating economy”.

All members of the collective took part in intra-ethnic migration to one degree or another. These were seasonal migrations of hunters, and later, when fishing appeared, movements of fishermen for spawning fish in rivers or schools of fish in the seas. Intra-ethnic migration fully applies to gathering. In search of edible plants, worms, insects, various larvae, etc. people had to walk many kilometers almost every day across “their” territory.

Ethnoemigration could occur for several reasons. A group of hunters, fishermen or gatherers could move to a sufficiently large distance from their habitat and, for objective reasons, could not reunite with their group. Objective reasons include the following factors:

Climatic - river floods, volcanic eruptions, avalanches, rockfalls, etc.;
- biological - persecution of a group of people by predators or large animals dangerous to them: mammoths, woolly rhinoceroses, etc.;
- social - the pursuit of hunters of a primitive collective after a group that has invaded their territory.

It is unlikely that there could have been strong subjective reasons that forced primitive people to leave their collective. Life not only alone, but also in a small group was simply impossible during the Paleolithic 3 and Mesolithic 4 . No wonder one of the most terrible types of punishment was expulsion from the tribe. It was a condemnation to certain death either from predators or from hunger.

The migration of primitive people was a common phenomenon. Relocations were necessary. Climatic changes were, as a rule, very long-lasting: the advance of glaciers or interglacial periods lasted tens and hundreds of thousands of years. They brought a gradual change in flora and fauna. But there could also be short-term cataclysms, such as earthquakes, that forced people to leave a given territory. But migration was influenced not least by anthropogenic factors.

Hunters most often killed young animals and females - they were easier to hunt and their meat was tastier. This led to the population collapse. Often, during driven hunts, hunters killed more animals than were necessary for their life. This can be seen in the example of archaeological excavations in Solutre (France). Here, on an area exceeding a hectare, a bone deposit more than 5 m thick was discovered. Primitive hunters destroyed about 100 thousand wild horses. Obviously, not everything was eaten. Many of the skeletons were in “anatomical order.” These were the skeletons of animals whose herds completely died after falling off a cliff. A similar picture was observed in the village of Amvrosievka, Donetsk region, where at least 1,000 bison were destroyed, which is half of the entire population of these animals today. In the Old World, mammoths, mastodons, woolly rhinoceroses, cave bears and panthers, giant deer disappeared, and in the New World - proboscideans, camels, horses, etc. In general, the first settlers in America exterminated more than 30 species of large animals. Of course, climate change played a certain role in the disappearance of these animals, which also led to changes in their food supply. But the anthropogenic factor was undoubtedly very large.

During the Upper Paleolithic there was a decline of 75% in animals whose mass was from 100 to 1000 kg, by 41% in those weighing from 5 to 100 kg, and by only 2% in those whose weight was less than 5 kg. This led to a crisis of specialized hunting, forcing people not only to “invent” new types of weapons: boomerang, bow and arrow, spear thrower, but also to begin an intensive search for new hunting places, i.e. move, exploring new territories.

Gatherers often set fires: they set the grass on fire to allow new, more succulent plants to appear as quickly as possible. In a number of areas, the restoration of the previous vegetation cover did not occur, and animals disappeared accordingly. People had to look for new territories. This had a particularly detrimental effect on the forest-tundra in the northern regions, whose zonal border was pushed to the south.

Migration as settlement is also characteristic of the entire period of human prehistory. Already in the Paleolithic era, about 2 - 3 million people lived on Earth. But this type of migration experienced a boom in the Neolithic era, 5 when, as a result of the Neolithic revolution, the population increased at least 10 times. The Neolithic Revolution made the transition from an appropriating economy to a producing economy. Agriculture and cattle breeding appeared.

In the era of the first social division of labor into settled farmers and nomadic pastoralists, differentiation of migration processes began depending on the type of activity. The demographic explosion has added new dynamics to the processes under consideration. With the beginning of the Neolithic revolution, the usual routes changed and their meaning changed. From now on, it is necessary to find more convenient and rich pastures for livestock, and select places for sowing cereals that give maximum yield. The type of activity of nomadic pastoralists directly implied constant movement.

Resettlement most often took the form of intrusion. This was typical for agricultural peoples. The agricultural tribes led, of course, a sedentary lifestyle. The original “anchors” of settled life were sown fields, cattle pens and stone, very heavy grain grinders.

Having moved to new spaces, farmers literally “bite into” it. The cultivated areas were firmly held by migrants, and only a portion of the descendants left for new lands. The development of agriculture made it possible to begin the creation of an anthropogenic habitat for cultivated plants, and irrigation technology arose. The advent of wheeled transport made it possible to make a breakthrough beyond densely populated areas. During the Chalcolithic period, settlement took place in the form of mass spontaneous agricultural colonization.

For pastoral tribes, resettlement often took the form of an invasion, which indeed often resembled an invasion or attack. Pastoral tribes, unlike their hunter ancestors, often had to drive their herds away during migrations through enemy or arid territories.

During the period of the appropriating economy, migration acted to a large extent as a means of preserving the ESO. Much changes during the transition to a producing economy. Cultivated plants and domesticated animals quickly spread throughout the ecumene, often moving tens of thousands of kilometers away from the centers of origin of their species.

Getting to know new territories was important for hunters who had to track down animals. Obviously, the hunters had to move significantly away from their camps. In order for other members of the tribe to help them carry or cut up the prey, the first maps began to be created. “Cartography” existed everywhere. Of course, the maps were not perfect. These first maps were made on the ground using stones, shell rock, fragments of wood and bone, and sometimes even bird feathers. They marked safe paths, convenient passages, fords, watering places, pastures, burrows and resting places for animals. Some tribes of Melanesians and Polynesians used similar “visual aids” even in the 20th century. But on such seemingly primitive maps, since ancient times, Melanesians managed to show even the directions of winds, currents, reefs and underwater coral islands in the ocean, which Europeans began to do only in the Middle Ages. These maps, even by today's standards, are impressive, because they covered territories of over a thousand square kilometers.

The oldest known maps include those made on animal bones about 11-14 thousand years ago. These finds are far from isolated: Yakutia, southern Europe, East Africa, Melanesia, etc. Thus, on a mammoth tusk found near the village of Mezhirichi in Ukraine, a map of a settlement located on the river bank was carved (Fig. 1.1).

Rice. 1.1. Stone Age map showing riverside dwellings

Over time, when pictography appeared, maps began to be depicted on the walls of caves. It is unlikely that it will be possible to unravel all those icons that were drawn next to animals during the Upper Paleolithic period in the caves of Lascaux (France), Altamira (Spain), Kapova (Southern Urals), etc. It is likely that these could have been the most convenient hunting routes of those times .

Gathering was directly related to movement. Women and children had to change their usual routes at least in accordance with the changing seasons. If we take into account that gathering was more stable than hunting, and at the same time remember that it was mainly food of plant origin (low-calorie), then in order to feed the members of the primitive “herd”, and this is up to 40 individuals, it was necessary to collect daily almost up to a hundredweight of various roots, leaves and fruits. What kind of territory should the feeding landscape be in order to satisfy the needs of a particular primitive community over a certain period of time?

Primitive people could not often change their place of residence, if only because it had to be strengthened as much as possible against predators and other large animals, and this always required large and time-consuming efforts.

Gathering had to be not only effective, but also as safe as possible. And here we can also talk about the presence of certain routes.

When fishing entered the lives of our ancestors, they were able not only to master the rivers, but on rather fragile boats they managed to go out to the open sea, hunting deep-sea fish, sea animals, and even such giants as whales.

The fact that the development of the world's oceans began in the primitive era is confirmed by the facts of human settlement of the island archipelagos of the Pacific Ocean and Australia at the turn of the Paleolithic and Mesolithic.

In the primitive era, the first “trade” routes began to be established. The exchange was carried out not only with neighboring tribes, where it had the character of a “gift exchange” if the relationship was friendly, or “silent” if it was strained or hostile. Sometimes a “product” could travel hundreds or even thousands of kilometers before reaching the consumer. The need for a particular product generated demand for it; it could be specially “ordered.”

Using the example of the Australian aborigines and a number of South American tribes, similar features were identified in the formation and development of exchange relations, for the implementation of which it was necessary to overcome sometimes very vast spaces.

By the Neolithic era, special counter points appeared - prototypes of markets. These meeting points for exchange transactions were located, as a rule, at the junction of the borders of several friendly tribes. Very often, holidays for which neighboring tribes arrived were also used for exchange. It is known that special holidays began to arise, on which people gathered specifically for exchange transactions, i.e. trade. But it was also possible to agree on receiving the necessary goods at the funeral ceremony.

Intermediary trade was actively developing. Thus, some items were found more than 1000 km from the place where they were made. The places of growth or extraction of a particular product were often clearly localized. It could be diorite, which was used to make axes; ocher - for body painting; Picheri - a plant from the leaves of which a drug was produced, etc.

The figure of the traveling “trader” was considered inviolable. Australian “merchants” had special “messenger rods” by which they could be easily recognized.

Since the Neolithic period, exchange operations have been intensified. Long before the third social division of labor occurs and merchants themselves are singled out as a social stratum, tribes “delegate” their members to territories known and little known to them for the extraction/exchange of necessary goods.

In prehistoric times, our ancestors, when “traveling,” were mainly guided by external motivation, i.e. objective reasons, the main one of which was survival. Man in those distant times was almost completely dependent on nature. Any natural changes could cost lives. The destruction of specific animals and plants could not be restored in the Paleolithic and Mesolithic era; people did not yet know cattle breeding and agriculture. Often the only possible way out of a crisis situation was to leave their homes in the hope of finding something better.

Was there any intrinsic motivation in people whose life, full of dangers, gave them little time for leisure?

Yes, I was. Australian aborigines in terms of their level of development at the beginning of the 20th century. were at the Neolithic level. European ethnographers recorded the following characteristic features of their life: “... Mutual visits and hospitality are a very striking and characteristic feature of the life of all Australian tribes. Different groups pay each other visits even when they live very far from each other. These visits are made both by whole groups and often by individuals. Australians make the rounds with visits that last anywhere from a few weeks to a few months. It happens that some group has to spend the whole winter on the road to reach their destinations.”

Acceptance and visiting can be characterized precisely as internal motivation. So, for example, when the fruits of a tree growing in an area occupied by one group ripen, representatives of other tribes gather from all sides and are freely allowed by the owners to collect the fruits. Using the example of the natives of northern Queensland, researchers could repeatedly observe the following: if there was an abundance of any product in the tribe’s territory, then neighbors were invited to collect or hunt. In general, if there were food supplies for more than one day and they could not eat it, then neighboring tribes were invited: if they were at a distance of 2.5 - 3.0 km, then with special repeated cries, and if further, then they lit fires in certain places bonfires.

The separation of tribes with a productive economy (farming and cattle breeding) from the general mass of other tribes led over time to the first social division of labor: settled agriculture and nomadic cattle breeding. The second social division of labor is the separation of crafts (blacksmithing, pottery, weaving), when the production of products for exchange or sale took place from other activities, primarily the most important of them - agriculture.

Already in the Neolithic (and perhaps earlier), a ritual for welcoming guests began to take shape. Moreover, the ritual was different for men and women. In order for neighbors to be able to find a tribe that had left the site, a furrow was made on the ground, the direction and length of which indicated where and at what distance the owners had gone. It should be noted that the boundaries of the tribes’ feeding areas were strictly observed.

Internal motivation also includes “emotions of novelty”, expressed in the desire to expand the range of means that satisfy needs by becoming familiar with any new, unknown and unprecedented object, and an impulsive desire for economic communication.

The need for acquaintance with new, diverse phenomena of life, related to internal motivation, has been one of the natural character traits of a person since the primitive era.

“Marriage” travels become a characteristic part of life during the transition from the primitive herd to the clan community. Family and marriage relations in the primitive herd were either promiscuity or harem in nature. With the transition to the clan community, marriage within it was prohibited. Marriage partners could only be sought outside the clan, in other consanguineous groups. This phenomenon is called exogamy. Accordingly, in order to choose a wife, it was necessary to travel to the territory of the neighboring clan community. Echoes of this phenomenon can be seen in genealogical myths, traditions and beliefs. Such, for example, is information about the 12 tribes of ancient Israel, 6 tribes of Indians, 4 phyla of ancient Athenians, 24 elders of the Huns, etc. Marriage rights and privileges established within a particular group developed into a system on which the society of the clan period was built.

A detailed overview and analysis of exogamous relationships can be found in L. Morgan.

The emergence of a constant, ever-increasing surplus product brings into play another migration factor - the military one. This factor, having mainly external motivation, also has some internal features, for example, self-affirmation. With the transition of society to the so-called “military democracy”, aggressive military campaigns begin. They become an integral part of people's lives during the transition to early class societies. Military campaigns begin during the Eneolithic 6, when certain groups already accumulated a certain surplus of production. In the second half of the 5th millennium BC. e. The socio-economic and demographic situation in Western Asia and the Balkans begins to change, creating a constant threat of military attacks on agricultural centers. This leads to the need to create larger social systems - tribal unions.

In the forest zones of Central and Western Europe, there has been a transition to slash-and-burn agriculture 7 . This also caused the growth of surplus product, the beginning of social stratification and, as a consequence, the beginning of military migrations and the transition to subtribal associations. Only in the Bronze Age did mass agricultural colonization begin to acquire a systematically organized character, demonstrating the features of expansion.

The movements of primitive people had multiple motivations; they were a characteristic feature of their way of life. All any important spheres of life of the primitive collective were directly related to migration processes. It can be stated that the life of primitive people without “travel” would have been simply impossible.

Test questions and assignments

1. Define the concept of “travel”.
2. Name the types of migrations of primitive groups, or ethnosocial organisms (ESO).
3. What is the difference between intra-ethnic migration and ethno-emigration?
4. Describe the types of migration of the ESO itself.
5. How did climatic-geographical and anthropogenic factors influence migrations during the primitive era?
6. What were the external motives for migrations in primitive times? List them and describe them.
7. Was there an internal motivation that prompted ancient people to travel?
8. What do you know about primitive cartography?

Literature

1. Alekseev V.P. The formation of humanity. - M., 1984.
2. Alekseev V.P., Lershits A.I. History of primitive society. - M., 1990.
3.
4. James P., Thorpe N. Ancient inventions: Trans. from English - Minsk, 1997.
5. Taylor E.B. Primitive culture. - M., 1989.
6. Heyerdahl T. Ancient man and the ocean. - M., 1982.
7. Shapoval G.F. History of tourism. - Minsk, 1999.

1 Move - place, transfer to another place. - Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. - M., 1999. - P. 506.
2 Travel - a trip or movement on foot to some places, countries (usually for acquaintance or recreation). - Right there. - P. 633.
3 Paleolithic (from Greek. palaios- ancient and litos- stone) - ancient Stone Age. The Paleolithic is divided into lower, middle and upper (from 4-3 million to 15 thousand years ago).
4 Mesolithic (from Greek. mesos- average and litos- stone) - Middle Stone Age (15 - 10 (5) thousand years BC).
5 Neolithic (from Greek. neos- new and litos- stone) - new Stone Age (10 (5) -3 thousand years BC).
6 Eneolithic (from lat. aeneus- copper and Greek litos- stone) - the Copper-Stone Age, replacing the Neolithic.
7 In slash-and-burn farming, trees and shrubs are initially cut down (slashed) in the area to be sown, then they are burned in the same place, using the resulting ash as fertilizer.