Orthodox schools. Philosophy of ancient India Mimamsa school of Indian philosophy

Approximately, in the sixth century BC, a separate science - philosophy - appeared, due to inexplicable and mysterious circumstances, which simultaneously arose in different and opposite places of the continent - Ancient Greece, India and Ancient China. From there, the development of human nirvas occurs through a different explanation of mythological concepts about cultures. This period of development of philosophical teachings, in the indicated centers of civilizations, shapes modern history and a different interpretation of mythology, a rethinking of former values ​​and thoughts.

Philosophy in India marked the beginning of the emergence of philosophical Indian knowledge, which arose BC in the middle of the 1st millennium. The initial “steps” of man in an attempt to comprehend himself, the world around him and outer space, living and inanimate nature, led to progress in the development of the human mind, awareness and reason, contributed to evolution and differentiation from nature.

Understanding the connection between general culture and the circumstances and events of a past era lies in the very essence of philosophy. The game of the mind, thinking in abstract concepts and the spiritual power of rational-conceptual comprehension of the root causes of all things, which has a global impact on the global course of events, is philosophy.

Taking part in the formation of social ideals, value-worldview and methodological principles, philosophy reminds a person of the social and practical importance of common ideas about the world, raising the question before the thinker about the moral principles of existence. Close in spirit, the eastern philosophies of India and China had common points and significant differences, which had an important influence on the development of the cultures of India and China, as well as the peoples in contact with them.

A brief summary of Ancient Indian philosophy will tell you about many events of the era, about the interests and faith of other peoples, giving an excellent chance to enrich your own horizons. The foundation of Indian philosophy is occupied by the sacred scriptures - the Vedas and the Upanishads (notes) to the Vedas. In Indo-Aryan eastern culture, these texts represent the oldest monument of knowledge and teachings accumulated over all times. There are suggestions that the Vedas were not created by anyone, but always existed as truth, due to which the sacred scriptures did not contain erroneous information. Most of them are composed in Sanskrit, a mystical and perfect language. It is believed that with the help of Sanskrit, the universe comes into contact with man, showing the path to God. Cosmic truths are presented in partial records of the Vedas. The adapted part of the scriptures "Smriti", including the Mahabharata and Ramayana, is recommended for people who are not so gifted such as workers, women and representatives of lower castes, while the other part of the Vedas - "Shrudi", is feasible only for initiates.

Vedic period of Indian philosophy

The key source of information about the Vedic stage is the Vedas (translated from Sanskrit “Veda” - “knowledge”, “teaching” or “knowledge”).

The philosophy of Ancient India includes three stages:

1. Vedic – 15th – 5th centuries BC;
2. Classical – 5th -10th centuries BC;
3. Hindu - from the 10th century BC.

But in this article you will learn about the Vedic period, the most significant and absolute. Since ancient times, Indian philosophy has continuously taken root and shaped the values ​​of society. According to established traditions, the Vedas include four collections of Vedic literature, later enriched with explanations and additions of ritual, magical and philosophical orders (prayers, magic spells, hymns and chants):

1. "Samhitas";
2. "Brahmins";
3. "Aranyaki";
4. "Upanishads".

The gods differed from people in their omniscience, according to the Vedas, so knowledge was “recognized” and “seen” because it was endowed with a visual nature. This division reflects the historical sequence of development of Indian literature. The oldest collection is the Samhitas, while the last three collections are the resulting explanation, commentary on the Vedas and their additions. As a result, in the subtle literary sense, the Samhitas are the Vedas. Thus, the Samhitas include 4 original hymns: Rig Veda (authoritarian knowledge), Sama Veda (Veda of chants), Yajur Veda (scriptures on sacrifices) and Atharva Veda (knowledge of magic spells), borrowing texts from the Rig Veda. Scientists studying Indian philosophical teachings believe that during the formation of the Indian Vedas, throughout the valley of the majestic Ganges River, society was divided into classes, but this could not be called slave ownership. The social difference between people only increased social inequality, and marked the beginning of the organization of varnas or castes (differences in position in society, privileges and roles): brahmins, kshatriyas, vaishyas and sudras. Brahmins were priests; Kshatriyas - warriors who made up the highest social castes; Vaishyas were artisans, farmers and traders; Shudras - represented the lowest classes - servants and hired workers. Next, the Indian state arose. The Upanishads reflected the deepest reflection in the philosophical views of Ancient India.

Upanishads

The main philosophical part of the Vedas are the Upanishads. The literal translation from Sanskrit “upa-ni-shad” means “sitting at the feet of the teacher.” The Upanishads are a hidden teaching that cannot be made public to a large number of people. The text contained in the Upanishads is a statement of heterogeneous philosophical reflections in which a number of issues can be emphasized: adhiyajna (sacrifice), adhyatma (human microcosm) and adhidaivata (deified macrocosm); questions: “What is the position of the sun at night?”, “Where are the stars during the day?” and others. In the Upanishads, the central element is the parallels between the phenomena of the micro- and macrocosm, the idea of ​​the unity of the existing. The hidden and deep foundations of the microcosm “Atman” and the macrocosm “Brahman” are revealed, the study of conditionality and expressions. The basis of the Upanishads is generated by the external and internal aspects of existence, focusing on human comprehension of knowledge and moral improvement, posing the characteristic questions of the Upanishads - “Who are we, where did we come from and where are we going?” The essence of being in the Upanishads is designated “Brahman” - the beginning of everything spiritual, the universal and faceless soul of the universe, reviving the universe. “Brahman” is identical, but opposite to “Atman” - the individual principle of the spiritual “I”. “Brahman” is the highest objective principle, while “Atman” is subjective and spiritual. There is a dharma connection here about Samsara and Karma - about the cycle of life, eternal rebirth and the rule of compensation. Understanding a person’s future occurs through awareness of one’s behavior and actions committed in previous lives. Therefore, leading a decent lifestyle represents the future and rebirth in the upper castes or departure to the spiritual world. For unrighteous behavior in the current life, leads to future incarnations in the lower classes, and the “Atman” can be reborn into the body of an animal. The main task of the Upanishads is moksha or liberation from material wealth and spiritual self-improvement. Each person is the “smith” of his own happiness and his destiny is shaped by real actions - this is the philosophy of the Upanishads.

Philosophical schools of ancient India

The whole philosophy of India is based on systems. The emergence of philosophical schools began in the sixth century BC. Schools were divided into:

• "Astika" - orthodox schools based on the authority of the Vedas. These included the schools: Mimamsa, Vedanta, Yoga, Samkhya, Nyaya and Vaisheshika;
• Nastikas are unorthodox schools that refute the treatises of the Vedas for being false. These included schools: Jainism, Buddhism and Charvaka Lokayata.

Let's take a brief look at each of the orthodox schools:

1. Mimamsa or Purva Mimamsa (first) - founded by the ancient Indian sage Jaimini (3rd-1st centuries BC) and included: research, analysis, interpretation and reflection on the sacred scriptures;
2. Vedanta - compiled by the sage Vyasa (about 5 thousand years ago), the main goal relied on self-awareness, the individual’s understanding of his original nature and truth;
3. Yoga - founded by the sage Patanjali (in the 2nd century BC), aims to improve the human spirit through the practice of unifying body and mind, followed by liberation (moksha);
4. Sankhya - founded by the sage Kapila, the school is aimed at abstracting the spirit (purusha) from matter (prakriti);
5. Nyaya - and the laws of logic, according to which the external world exists independently of knowledge and reason. Objects of knowledge: our “I”, body, feelings, mind, rebirth, suffering and liberation;
6. Vaisheshika - founded by the sage Kanada (Uluka) (3-2 centuries BC), which is at the same time an opponent and supporter of Buddhist phenomenalism. Recognizing Buddhism as the source of knowledge and perception, but denying the truth of the facts of soul and substance.

Let's take a brief look at each of the unorthodox schools:

1. Jainism is translated from Sanskrit as “winner”, a dharmic religion, the founder of whose teachings is Jina Mahavira (8-6 centuries BC). The school's philosophy is based on self-improvement of the soul to achieve nirvana;
2. Buddhism - formed in the 5th-1st centuries BC, the teachings of the school assumed 4 truths: 1 - life is like suffering, 2 - the causes of which are desires and passions, 3 - deliverance occurs only after renouncing desires, 4 - through a series of rebirths and deliverance from the bonds of Samsara;
3. Charvaka Lokayata is a materialistic atheistic doctrine and low view. The universe and everything that exists arose naturally, without the intervention of otherworldly forces, thanks to 4 elements: earth, water, fire and air.

Hello, dear readers! Welcome to the blog!

The philosophy of Ancient India - briefly, the most important thing. This is another topic from a series of publications on the basics of philosophy. In the previous article we looked at. As already mentioned, the science of philosophy arose simultaneously in different parts of the world - in Ancient Greece and in Ancient India and China around the 7th-6th centuries. BC. Often the philosophies of Ancient India and Ancient China are considered together, since they are very related and had a great influence on each other. But still, I propose to consider the history of the philosophy of Ancient China in the next article.

Vedic period of Indian philosophy

The philosophy of Ancient India was based on the texts contained in the Vedas, which were written in the most ancient language - Sanskrit. They consist of several collections written in the form of hymns. It is believed that the Vedas were compiled over a period of thousands of years. The Vedas were used for religious service.

The first philosophical texts of India are the Upanishads (late 2nd millennium BC). The Upanishads are an interpretation of the Vedas.

Upanishads

The Upanishads formed the main Indian philosophical themes: the idea of ​​an infinite and one God, the doctrine of rebirth and karma. The One God is the incorporeal Brahman. Its manifestation – Atman – is the immortal, inner “I” of the world. The Atman is identical to the human soul. The goal of the human soul (the goal of the individual Atman) is to merge with the world Atman (the world soul). Anyone who lives in recklessness and impurity will not be able to achieve such a state and will enter the cycle of rebirth according to the cumulative result of his words, thoughts and actions, according to the laws of karma.

In philosophy, the Upanishads are ancient Indian treatises of a philosophical and religious nature. The most ancient of them date back to the 8th century BC. The Upanishads reveal the main essence of the Vedas, which is why they are also called “Vedanta”.

In them the Vedas received the greatest development. The idea of ​​connecting everything with everything, the theme of space and man, the search for connections, all this was reflected in them. The basis of everything that exists in them is the inexpressible Brahman, as the cosmic, impersonal principle and basis of the whole world. Another central point is the idea of ​​the identity of man with Brahman, of karma as the law of action and samsara, like a circle of suffering that a person needs to overcome.

Philosophical schools (systems) of Ancient India

WITH 6th century BC The time of classical philosophical schools (systems) began. Distinguish orthodox schools(they considered the Vedas the only source of Revelation) and unorthodox schools(they did not recognize the Vedas as the only authoritative source of knowledge).

Jainism and Buddhism classified as heterodox schools. Yoga and Samkhya, Vaisheshika and Nyaya, Vedanta and Mimamsa- these are six orthodox schools. I listed them in pairs because they are pairwise friendly.

Unorthodox schools

Jainism

Jainism is based on the hermit tradition (6th century BC). The basis of this system is personality and it consists of two principles - material and spiritual. Karma binds them together.

The idea of ​​rebirth of souls and karma led the Jains to the idea that all life on Earth has a soul - plants, animals and insects. Jainism preaches such a life as not to harm all life on Earth.

Buddhism

Buddhism arose in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. Its creator was Gautama, a prince from India, who later received the name Buddha, which means awakened one. He developed the concept of a way to get rid of suffering. This should be the main goal of life for a person who wants to gain liberation and go beyond samsara, the cycle of suffering and pain.

To break out of the circle of suffering (enter nirvana) you need to observe 5 Commandments (Wikipedia) and engage in meditation, which calms the mind and makes one's mind clearer and free from desires. The extinction of desires leads to liberation and deliverance from the cycle of suffering.

Orthodox schools

Vedanta

Vedanta was one of the most influential schools of Indian philosophy. The exact time of its appearance is not known, approximately - 2nd century. BC e. The completion of the teaching dates back to the end of the 8th century AD. e. Vedanta is based on the interpretation of the Upanishads.

In it the basis of everything is Brahman, which is one and infinite. The Atman of man can know Brahman and then man can become free.

Atman is the highest “I”, the absolute, which is aware of its existence. Brahman is the cosmic, impersonal beginning of everything that exists.

Mimamsa

Mimamsa is adjacent to Vedanta and is a system that explained the rituals of the Vedas. The core was considered the idea of ​​duty, which represented the making of sacrifices. The school reached its culmination in the 7th-8th centuries. It had an impact on strengthening the influence of Hinduism in India and reducing the importance of Buddhism.

Sankhya

This is the philosophy of dualism founded by Kapila. There are two principles in the world: prakriti (matter) and purusha (spirit). According to it, the main basis of everything is matter. The goal of Samkhya philosophy is the abstraction of spirit from matter. It was based on human experience and reflection.

Sankhya and Yoga are connected. Samkhya is the theoretical basis for yoga. Yoga is a practical technique for achieving liberation.

Yoga

Yoga. This system is based on practice. Only through practical exercises can a person achieve reunification with the divine principle. A lot of such yoga systems have been created, and they are still very famous all over the world. It is this that has become most popular now in many countries, thanks to a set of physical exercises that make it possible to be healthy and not get sick.

Yoga differs from Samkhya in the belief that every person has a supreme personal Deity. With the help of asceticism and meditation, you can free yourself from prakriti (material).

Nyaya

Nyaya was a teaching about various forms of thinking, about the rules of discussion. Therefore, its study was mandatory for everyone who was engaged in philosophizing. The problems of existence in it were explored through logical comprehension. Man's main goal in this life is liberation.

Vaisesika

Vaisheshika is a school related to the Nyaya school. According to this system, every thing is constantly changing, although there are elements in nature that are not subject to change - these are atoms. An important topic of the school is to classify the objects in question.

Vaisheshika is based on the objective cognizability of the world. Adequate cognition is the main goal of systematic thinking.

Books on the philosophy of Ancient India

From Samkhya to Vedanta. Indian philosophy: darshans, categories, history. Chattopadhyaya D (2003). A professor at Calcutta University wrote this book especially for Europeans who are just beginning to become acquainted with the philosophy of Ancient India.

Six systems of Indian philosophy. Muller Max (1995). The Oxford University professor is an outstanding expert on Indian texts; he has translated the Upanishads and Buddhist texts. This book is referred to as a fundamental work on the philosophy and religion of India.

Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Chatterjee S and Dutta D (1954). The authors present the views of Indian philosophical schools briefly and in simple language.

The philosophy of Ancient India - briefly, the most important thing. VIDEO.

Summary

I think the article " Philosophy of Ancient India - briefly, the most important thing" became useful for you. You learned:

• about the main sources of the philosophy of Ancient India - the ancient texts of the Vedas and Upanishads;
• about the main classical schools of Indian philosophy - orthodox (yoga, Samkhya, Vaisheshika, Nyaya, Vedanta, Mimamsa) and heterodox (Jainism and Buddhism);
• about the main feature of the philosophy of the Ancient East - about understanding the true purpose of man and his place in the world (focus on the inner world was considered more important for a person than on the external circumstances of life).

I wish everyone always a positive attitude for all your projects and plans!

The Origin of Philosophy in Ancient India

The most ancient of those studied to date are the philosophical studies of Ancient India. Their origin dates back to the 2nd millennium BC. These teachings were based on the study of the surrounding world, human relationships, everything that is connected with the nature of the existence of the human body and its soul. But the research did not have a solid scientific basis; rather, they related to logical conclusions from what was seen and felt. These were the first steps towards scientific teachings and explanations of various phenomena in human life.

We can say that all world philosophy has its roots going back centuries and is based on the research of Ancient India.

The preserved treasures of Indian philosophy, written in Sanskrit, have survived to this day. This work has a common title "Veda", i.e. knowledge, vision. The collection includes various spells, rituals, invocations, prayers, etc., addressed to the forces of nature, and is also an attempt to interpret the human world around us from a philosophical point of view. The teaching explains people’s first ideas about their moral and moral essence in life.

The Vedas are divided into four parts, which are worth talking about in more detail:

1. First part - Samhitas, which means hymns, she the oldest from all parts.

2. Second part - Brahmins- ritual texts, on which religion is based or philosophy of Brahmanism, which had the main power and authority before the emergence of Buddhism.

3. Third part - Aranyaki (forest books)- this part gives recommendations and sets the rules of life for people who choose hermit lifestyle.

4. Part four - Upanishads- what does it mean to sit at the feet of a teacher and receive intimate, secret knowledge - philosophical part of the Vedas. In it, a new character, Purusha, appears, who appears to be omniscient and omnipotent, the soul of the world, the cosmic mind, that is, in our understanding, an omnipotent god. Next he will receive the name Atman, from whom the human student receives knowledge.

All schools of philosophy of Ancient India are based on the Vedas, hence the division of society into four varnas, or, as they are also called, castes - brahmans, kshatriyas, vaishyas and sudras. Varna is the status of a certain group of people in society; to be more precise, it is a shell, color, color, cover. The right to belong to a particular caste is determined by birth. Each caste is engaged in a certain type of activity.

o Brahmins (color white)- This is the highest caste, it deals only with mental work.

o Kshatriyas (color red)- their destiny is military affairs.

o Vaishya (color yellow)- engaged only in handicrafts and agriculture.

o Shudras (color black)- this is the lowest varna, doing “menial” work.

Only men of the first three castes had access to knowledge; the fourth caste, as well as all women, were excluded from knowledge. Their dignity was valued on a par with animals.

Main schools of philosophy of Ancient India

As can be seen from the development of history, the division of society is also based on a unique philosophy that comes from the ancient Vedas. With the development of society and its division into castes, currents appear that have shaped Orthodox and unorthodox schools of Indian philosophy. Schools of these directions appear, which adhere to the support or refutation of the Vedas. The division into these schools of philosophical knowledge occurs in the 6th century. BC. - this was led to by the development of society, the formation of new economic relations, the moral improvement of man, and the emergence of new knowledge.

Orthodox schools(astika - frantic) remained true to the philosophy of the Vedas. These included Vedanta, Sanhya, Nyaya, Mimamsa, Yoga and Vaisheshika. Adherents of these movements are those who believe in the continuation of life after leaving for another world. It is interesting to consider each direction of Orthodox schools in more detail.

1. Vedanta or the completion of the Vedas, the school is divided into two directions “advanta” and “visishta-advanta”. The philosophical meaning of the first direction is that there is nothing but God, everything else is just an illusion. The second direction - Vishishta-Advaita, preaches three realities of which the world consists - God, soul and matter.

2. Sankhya- this school teaches recognition of the material and spiritual principles. Material values ​​are in constant development, the spiritual principle is eternal. The material goes away with the death of a person, but the spiritual principle continues life.

3. Nyaya- a school whose highest spiritual mentor is the god Ishvara . The teaching of the school is a conclusion from sensations, analogies and the testimony of others.

4. Mimamsa- the school is based on the principles of logic, reasonable explanation, it recognizes spiritual and material existence.

5. Vaisesika- this school bases its principles on the knowledge that everyone around a person, like himself, consists of indivisible particles that have eternal existence and are controlled by the world soul, i.e. God.

6. Yoga- this is the most famous direction of all schools. It is based on the principles of dispassion, contemplation and detachment from the material. Meditation leads to achieving harmonious liberation from suffering and reunification with God. Yoga is loyal to all existing schools and their teachings.

Unorthodox schools(nastika - atheist), who do not take the ancient Vedas as the basis of their philosophy. These include Buddhism, Charvaka Lokayata, Ved Jainism. Adherents of this school are considered atheists, but the Jaya and Buddhist schools still profess astika, as they believe in the continuation of life after death.

1. Buddhism- the philosophy of this school is proclaimed the official religion. The founder is Siddhartha, who was nicknamed Buddha, i.e. enlightened. The philosophy of the school is based on the path of enlightenment, the achievement of nirvana. This is a state of complete peace and equanimity, liberation from the causes of suffering and pain, from the external world and thoughts associated with it.

2. Charvaka (Lokayata)- the school is based on the wisdom of the teachings that everything that exists consists of air, water, fire and earth, i.e. four elements, in various combinations. After death, when these elements disintegrate, they join their counterparts in nature. The school denies the existence of any other world except the material one.

3. Jainism- the school received its name from the nickname of its founder, Jin, who lived in the 4th century BC. The main thesis is the belief in Tattva. This is the essence, the material for creating the entire structure of the world - the soul (jiva) and everything that is not it (ajiva) - the material surrounding a person. The soul is eternal and has no creator, it has always existed and it is omnipotent. The purpose of the teaching is the way of life of a person who has renounced base passions - complete asceticism and obedience to a teacher who has conquered his own passions and is able to teach this to others.

Changes taking place in India with the advent of nomadic tribes who called themselves arias, destroyed the usual ways of life of society. With time the texts of the sacred “Vedas” have become incomprehensible to the majority from people. There remained a small group of initiates who could interpret them - brahmins. These changes date back to the middle of the 2nd millennium BC.

Arias brought a new world of philosophical teachings and ideas into Indian culture. They had their own gods who demanded sacrifices.

Over the centuries, Vedic philosophy acquired new knowledge and became more complex with new rituals. Brahmins continued to support and develop new forms of religious philosophy. They proclaimed Prajapati - the Master of creatures and the Lord of creations - as the main god. Rituals with sacrifices became an everyday reality. Philosophy divided the world into two - the world of gods and ordinary people. Brahmin priests placed themselves on a par with the ancient gods and their teachings. But the Vedas were still considered the fundamental basis of the new philosophy.

In the process of social development, there was a rethinking of philosophical movements, the foundations of which were laid in the mists of time. Next they became the basis for the emergence of new religions, such as Hinduism(a continuation of Brahmanism mixed with Vedic philosophy and local religions) and Buddhism.

As we now know, Buddhism from the philosophical school grew to such heights that he became one of the three world religions and spread to the countries of the East and Southeast and Central Asia.

Man's desire for knowledge, which subsequently leads to the development and progress of society, was taken from ancient philosophical treatises. Today people are also searching for answers to the eternal questions of humanity, not suspecting that they are repeating the path of many generations who have tried to understand the meaning of life.

Sankhya(“reasonable weighing”, or “enumeration”) – interpreted as “number”, “perfect knowledge”. It was described in the ancient Indian epic “ Mahabharata", serves as a complement to Yoga. Founding is attributed Kapile, 7th century BC er., although the first systematic presentation was given Ishwarakrishna in the first centuries AD er. the main objective– knowledge of reality to end suffering and unhappiness . Ontology– is based on “causality” (the effect resides in the cause before its manifestation). They recognize the existence of two principles in the Universe: material - prakriti (matter, nature) and spiritual – purusha (consciousness). Prakriti(primary matter) is in constant change, subject to the law of cause and effect. All deterministic modifications depend on the proportional relationship of the gunas represented in it. Prakriti exists in 2 forms: a) vyakta(manifested matter); b) a-vyakta(not manifested matter). Prakriti consists of 3 gunas: 1) Satva(clarity, purity) – represents the nature of pleasure; 2) Rajas(activity) – an active, mobile and stimulating principle; 3) Tamas(inertia) – the opposite of both, a passive and negative principle in things. Their combination leads to the emergence and emergence of the entire diversity of nature. Purusha is neither the highest god - the creator, nor the world spirit. This is the eternal, unchanging principle of individuality, consciousness, contemplating both the course of life of the living being in which it is located, and the process of evolution of the Universe, taken as a whole. Contact prakriti With purusha determines the beginning of the evolution of the individual and the universe. Every living creature consists of three parts: purusha, subtle body and gross body. Slim body consists of the intellect, the senses and the sense of “I”, and is the focus of karma. She follows the purusha until she is completely freed from reincarnation. Rough body consists of material elements, and perishes with the death of the creature. Three reasons suffering : a) internal; b) external; c) from supernatural causes (spirits, ghosts). IN epistemology recognized three sources of reliable knowledge: a) perception; b) logical inference; c) evidence from scripture.

Yoga in Sanskrit means stress, training, and is a contemplative practice expressing connection, participation, order, deep reflection, concentration. The founder is called Patanjali, 2nd century BC er., although he only systematized and outlined its main content in his “Yoga Sutra”. Main content of the exercises. Sharing the main provisions of Hinduism, Yoga considers the main thing on the path of merging the individual soul with the deity psychophysical training followed by the achievement of mystical ecstasy and complete trance, in which the real world around a person disappears. Thus, limiting the activity of the mind leads to the liberation of the soul from suffering. The lowest stage of Yoga - "Hatha Yoga" contains mainly physical techniques aimed at mastering the body in such a way that makes it possible to move on to Raja Yoga(a system of mental exercises leading to complete separation from reality). Moreover, Hatha Yoga, without sufficient grounds, is presented as a universal method of curing all diseases and extraordinary healing of the body, although some of its techniques (for example, breathing techniques) have found a certain place in physical therapy. Exercises Yogis entered most of the religions of India, including Buddhism, as one of the paths of “salvation.” With the help of Yoga, especially its mystical ecstasy, one can supposedly become infinitely small and invisible, grow to enormous sizes, be transported at will to any place, “see” objects thousands of kilometers away, read other people’s thoughts, know the past and future, talk with the dead .

System Yogi consists of 4 parts: 1. Samadhipad– about the nature, goals and forms of Yoga; 2. Sadhanipada– these are means of achieving concentration; 3. Vibhutipada– internal aspects of Yoga , supernatural powers acquired by a person during meditation; 4 . Kaivalyapada– a description of nature, forms of liberation from suffering, the transcendental world is considered. When performing meditation, a person experiences 5 stepsspiritual state: 1. Kshipta– absent-minded state; 2. Mudha– inactivity, dull state; 3. Vikshipta– relative peaceful state; 4. Egarka– concentration of the mind on any object; 5. Niruddha- cessation of all mental activity.

Vaisesika – in Sanskrit "visesha" means “peculiarity”, “difference”, “single”, “part”, “primary substance”. Founder Canada(real name Uluk), he was also called the “grain eater”, 3rd century BC. er. Vaisheshika received significant development in "Padartha-dharma-sangrahe" Prashastapadas (4th century). Vaisheshika is strong materialistic trends. primary goal– liberation of the individual “I” from suffering through knowledge. Their teaching about knowledge close to Nyaya's position . They distinguished two types of knowledge: "perception" and "logical inference". They have Padartha has a value close to the value "Category". Total distinguish 7 types Padarthi: “Dravya” (substance), “Guna” (quality), “Karma” (action), “Samanya” (community), “Visesha” (peculiarity), “Samavaya” (relationship with essence), “Abhava” (non-being ). The first three exist in reality, the next three are products of the activity of the mind. Plays an important role category feature, which gave its name to the Vaisesika teachings , which reflects the real diversity of the substance. IN ontologies acknowledged the existence 9 substances: earth, water, light, air, ether, time, space, soul and mind. It was believed that the substances of the first four consist of atoms, which in various combinations form all material objects. 4 types of atoms correspond to 4 sense organs (indriyas). Atoms are eternal, indivisible, invisible, and have no extension. Their connection is controlled by the world mind (soul) "Manas". He synthesizes and logically summarizes their evidence. The doctrine of cosmogony. Recognized idea of ​​cyclicality: the world arises, develops and dies during disasters. Atoms are not destroyed, the bonds between them are simply broken and restored again. "Adrishta"(invisible, hidden, fate) - as the fundamental principle lies at the beginning of each cycle and brings order to the world of chaos. That is, this is the idea of ​​​​repeating an eternal cycle - Kalpa.

Nyaya(rule, logic or not science) – the doctrine of forms of thinking. Founder Gotama(or Gutama, Akshapad), 1st century. n. er. Means rule, basis, method, conclusion, logic. The Nyaya teaching is closely related to Vaisheshika. They played an important role in their teachings logic and epistemology. Ontological Nya doctrine holds that the material universe consists of atoms, the combination of which forms all objects. In addition, there are many souls in the Universe that are both in a free state and associated with material systems. God Ishvara(the highest regulating spiritual principle) is not the creator of souls and atoms, but only creates combinations of atoms, and connects them with souls and frees them from them. Epistemology comes first. 4 sources true knowledge: 1. Pratyaksha- perception; 2. Anumana- conclusion; 3. Upanmana– comparison; 4. Shabda– evidence. TO unreliable knowledge was attributed to: 1. Memory(smriti); 2. Doubt e (sanshaya); 3. Error(bhrama or evaporaya); 4. Hypothetical element (tarka). Recognized 6 organs of perception– external and 1 internal, which was considered as a special perception (Yogadma). It was characteristic of those who achieved spiritual perfection - they could perceive everything. True was determined by the correspondence or non-compliance of the conclusions with the facts of reality. Exactly Nyaeifor the first time in India, the theory of the five-term syllogism was developed, which differed from the Greek. The discussion determined three shapes: 1. Vada– the highest form of dispute, which is conducted according to all the rules; 2. Vitanda– the refuting party does not put forward its own version of the solution; 3. Jalpa– the parties want to win by any means.

Mimamsa – it is a “clarification” of the Vedic text on sacrifices. She solved these problems through reasoning and critical inquiry. They believed that the Vedas were not a revelation in the full sense of the word and that the religious and philosophical positions contained in them needed logical justification. Purva – Mimamsa(more accurate name), 4th century. BC er., set the task of justifying the faith from which the prescriptions of the rituals come; Jamini, 2nd century n. er., - examines the rules of sacrifice (Veda, Brahmanism) and compiles Mimamsa Sutra, where the main provisions of the teachings were outlined. In Mimamse the names of God are real, but not the Gods themselves . The basis of the teaching Mimansa - achievement "Moksha" cannot be rationally explained and achievable through knowledge and any conscious effort. Main– strict observance of the social and religious duty of “Dharma”, which consists of performing rituals and submitting to all sorts of restrictions and prohibitions imposed by caste. Moreover, this aspiration should be following “dharma” in itself, and should not depend on the individual’s aspirations. Mimamsa, like Samkhya, recognized the existence of spiritual and material principles in the Universe . Five Sources of Right Knowledge: a) the first comes evidence from authoritative sources; b) 2nd source – sensory knowledge; c) 3rd source – logical conclusion (anuman); d) 4th source – comparison (upamansa); f) 5th source - postulation (arthappati - explanation of certain causeless phenomena with the help of an unperceived fact). Thus, postulation seems to be a hypothesis that is first proposed by Indian philosophy. An example is the following. If a person gets fat, but does not eat during the day, then he eats at night. About life and suffering. The main goal of life is to achieve bliss, but this bliss is heavenly. Consciousness is not the essence of the soul, but a certain quality of it. Conclusion: life is short and full of suffering. We must strive to free the soul and reach heaven. Mimamsa was more closely connected with practical religion than Samkhya, and at the same time, the extreme realism and rationalism of Mimamsa methodology brings it closer to ancient Indian materialism.

Vedanta- it's like "completion of the Vedas", arose on the basis of the Upanishads. For the first time, the main provisions of the teachings of Vedanta were outlined Badarayana V Vedanta sutras. Vedanta still occupies an important place in Hindu philosophy. In the teachings of Vedanta formed two directions: advaita– absolute non-dualism; And vishishta - advaita, discriminative non-dualism. The founder of the first doctrine - Shankara. The only true reality is the spiritual principle - Brahman. It is indefinable, unconditional and without quality. The idea of ​​the diversity of objects and phenomena of the Universe is a consequence of ignorance (avidya). In fact, everything except God is a pure illusion (Mayan). He creates the world in all its forms and emanates from it. Other Gods are forms of manifestation of Brahman. World relative, and Brahman absolute. Matter and consciousness not real, but rooted in Brahman. Knowing the world is self-deception(at dusk the rope looks like a snake). The main thing is intuition And revelation, and inference and sensation play a secondary role. About a human. Man is dual. Body- illusory appearance, but true reality is soul (Atman), as a projection of the absolute Brahman onto the human personality. Namely, the mental state ( Avastha) determines external reality. Self-knowledge of a person brings him closer to Brahman. Liberation of the soul from the body is the elimination of the illusory world. Founder second direction is Ramanuja(11th-12th centuries). Exists three reality: matter, soul, god. They are mutually subordinate: soul subdues material body, a b og dominates both. Without God, soul and matter can only exist as pure concepts and not as reality. The goal of the individual's efforts is liberation from material existence through spiritual activity, knowledge and love of God. On the relationship between God and “I”. Believe three options: 1. “I” and God are different entities ( madhva); 2. “I” and God are identical ( shankara); 3. “I” and God as part and whole. Since the Middle Ages Vedanta to become the most influential school of thought in the orthodox system. The first direction was associated with the cult God Shiva, and the second - with Vishnu.

QuestionsForself-control

Why did Indian philosophy develop continuously, without sharp turns?

What are the main periods in the development of Indian philosophy?

What was the characteristic feature of the Shraman period of Indian philosophy?

What problems did ancient Indian philosophers discuss during their early development?

Why was there no coherent system for presenting the history of philosophy in Indian philosophy?

What role did Brahmanism play in the development of Indian philosophy?

Who were the “Sramana” preachers?

What role did the Vedas play in the development of Indian philosophy, and what are the main contents of its samhitas and commentaries?

What was the Shraman era of Indian civilization like?

What do the concepts of Rita, samsara, karma and moksha mean in the Vedas?

What are Atman and Brahman in the Vedas?

On what basis are heterodox and orthodox schools distinguished in the philosophy of Ancient India?

What substances are discussed in Jainism?

What does Jainism say about right belief, right knowledge and right conduct?

What types of knowledge are discussed in Jainism?

Give a chronology of the main schools of traditional Buddhism.

How is the “middle way” understood in Buddhism?

What are the differences between the Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle) and Mahayana (Greater Vehicle) schools of Buddhism?

Tell us about the Buddha's Four Noble Truths?

What source of knowledge did the Lokayats consider to be the only true one?

What are prakriti and gunas in Samkhya?

How does the ontology of yoga differ from the ontology of Samkhya?

How does the Eightfold Path of yoga differ from the Eightfold Path of Buddhism?

What is padartha and what padarthas are offered in Vaisesika?

Which philosophical schools developed the doctrine of atoms?

What sources of true knowledge are discussed in Nyaya?

From the Nyaya point of view, how can one establish the truth of knowledge?

What special source of true knowledge does Mimamsa offer?

What does the Mimamsa concept say about achieving heavenly bliss?

What path of liberation from samsara does Vedanta offer?

What does “You are that” mean in Vedanta?

What possibilities of liberation from suffering were offered in the philosophical schools of Ancient India?

List of possible test questions on this topic at the Frequency Control Commission

1. On the origins of philosophy in Ancient India. Answer: 11th – 10th centuries BC er.; On the date of the transition from mythological consciousness to conceptual and philosophical thinking in Ancient India. Answer: V century BC e.

2. On the root causes of the genesis of philosophy in Ancient India. Answer. Transition from bronze to iron; weakening, and in some places even cessation of the activities of tribal structures; the presence of a spiritual civilization - the first ancient Indian literary monument that has come down to us, the Vedas.

3. About the Vedas. Answer: this is an ancient Indian literary monument, an ancient Indian ideology containing religious and mythological ideas and the beginnings of philosophical ideas.

4.About the four Samhitas of the Vedas. Answer. Rig Veda is the oldest and first book in chronology, followed by Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharhaveda. Later, each of the Samhitas is overgrown with religious and mythological commentaries: Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads.

Perhaps there will be content questions each of the four Samhitas

and three comments to them. Answer:

1.Rigveda- the oldest and first chronological book, contains 1028 hymns glorifying the exploits and power of the Gods;

2.Samaveda- these are chants where Rig Vedic texts are predominantly repeated, but with more detailed instructions on their performance;

3.Yajurveda– description of the details of the Vedic ritual of sacrifice;

4.Atharhaveda – a collection of spells and magic formulas.

A comment to the Samhitas:

A) Brahman– these are mythological and religious explanations with detailed descriptions and comments on the texts of the Samhitas;

b) Appear a little later Aranyaki– “Forest books” intended for hermits. They explain the mystical meaning of Vedic rituals and their symbolism;

c) And finally they appear "Upanishads"- religious - mythological commentary on the Vedas, containing instructions regarding truths and peace." “Upanishad” literally means “to sit” at the feet of the teacher.

5. About the main stages formation and development of Indian philosophy. Answer. There are four periods: Vedic period - a harbinger, or pre-history of Indian philosophy (12–7 centuries BC); classical, or Brahmano-Buddhist period (from the 6th century BC to the 10th century AD); post-classical period (10th – 18th centuries AD); new and modern philosophy India (from the 18th century AD to the present).

6. About the epic stage Brahmano-Budhu period. Answer.Generally,Brahmano-Buddhistthe period is divided into three stages: epic, era of sutras and Buddhist (details in the lecture). The most famous sources of the epic period: two poems - epics "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana", the heretical movement in philosophy was led by ascetics - preachers "Scarmen".

7. About "Shramans"Answer. These are people who make efforts to transition to an ascetic lifestyle and a deeper intellectual understanding of the prescriptions of the Vedas. Later, from Shramanov many philosophical schools of Indian philosophy originate.

8. About the sutras(2nd century BC – 7th century AD). Answer. These are short philosophical treatises that examine the ideological aspects of a particular problem in the form of sutras, parables, legends, etc. (for example, “nama-sutra”, etc.).

9. About Nagarjuna.Answer. This is a prominent representative of the Madhyamika Buddhist school (2nd century AD), whose philosophy preached the unreality of conceptual thinking and the absoluteness of intuitive knowledge. His philosophy contributed to the emergence of idealistic schools "Madhyamika", "Vijnanavada", "Tantric Buddhism", "Zen Buddhism" and etc.

10. About Hinduism.Answer. This is a set of religious ideas, customs, religious rituals and social institutions characteristic of the majority of the Indian population. The roots of Hinduism go back to the ancient Indian religion - Brahmanism. A Hindu is one who has at least one Indian parent and does not profess any other religion.

11. About Vaishnava and Shaivite system of Hinduism. Answer. These are the deities most revered by Hinduism - the trinity of Brahmanism: Brahma(creator), Vishnu(custodian), and Shiva(creator, preserver and destroyer).

12. On ontology and epistemology of Indian philosophy.Answer. Already in the Vedas, along with hymns in honor of numerous gods, the concept of a single world order is found - the concept Rita.Ontology Indian philosophy (the doctrine of being and non-being), based on Ritu, as the law of cosmic evolution, cyclicity, order and interconnectedness. Besides, in "Upanishads" contained ideas:

“On the unity of the integral spiritual substance, brahman and the individual soul - atman;

“On the immortality of the soul,” which passes from one birth to another, according to the law of karma.

Being and non-being associated with exhalation and inhalation, respectively Brahma-Cosmos(God the creator). The whole endless history is the alternation of the life of the Cosmos ( Maha Manvantara) and Absolute Nothingness ( Maha Pralaya), which replace each other every 100 space years. With each new birth of Brahma-Cosmos, life appears anew, but in a more perfect form. The world is interconnected. Any event (human act, natural phenomenon) affects the life of the Cosmos. The goal of evolution and development is to achieve an increasingly perfect spirit through a constant change of material forms. The following concepts were used in the ontology:

Rita - this is the fundamental principle of the world, the law of cosmic evolution, cyclicality, order and interconnectedness ;

Brahman – objective highest reality, impersonal Absolute beginning of being;

Atman – subjective highest spiritual principle, the highest spiritual principle of a person;

Samsara – wheel of rebirths;

Moksha – liberation of the soul from rebirth;

Karma – the law of moral retribution;

Distinctive feature Ancient Indian epistemology is not the study of external (visible) signs of objects and phenomena (which is typical for the European type of cognition), but the study of the processes occurring in consciousness when in contact with the world of objects and phenomena. The first information about Indian logic can be gleaned from early Buddhist sources (3rd century BC), then logic is developed in school nyai, and later - in the treatises of Buddhist logicians Dignagi, Dharmakriti and etc.

16. About the subject area of ​​Indian philosophy. Answer. Beginning with Vedic period All philosophical schools had a specific practical orientation. Philosophers sought to know the true nature of the Universe and the meaning of human life. The soul of the philosopher was alarmed the presence of evil. G The main attention of philosophical schools was directed to finding means to completely eliminate human suffering. Ignorance reality considered the main cause of human addiction and human suffering. Believed that liberation from suffering without understanding nature and oneself it is impossible to achieve. The purpose of philosophy is to understand how to live in the best way.

17. About the main characteristic ideas inherent in Indian philosophy.Answer. The first feature is belief in the existence of an eternal world order; then it went an idea of ​​the enormity of world space and time; Many philosophical schools were characterized by the idea of ​​​​the insignificance of life on earth . The earth is small, earthly goods are insignificant and life is just a ripple on the surface of the ocean of time. And therefore, one should not take the fleeting for the eternal; The idea of ​​Karma played an important role in Indian philosophy: existing evil - This consequence of a person's actions. A better future is possible as a result of self-improvement in the present.

18. About "Nastik" and "Astik". Answer.To "Nastika"(“not orthodox”) include “Jainism”, “Buddhism”, “Charvako-Lokoyata” and other materialistic and atheistic philosophical schools that did not recognize many of the provisions of the Vedas. IN "Astiku"(“orthodox”) included “Mimansa”, “Samkhya”, “Yoga”, “Nyaya”, “Vaishesika”, “Vedanta”.

19. Maybe, there will be questions about the content of some philosophical schools "Astiki"(orthodox) and "Nastics"(not orthodox). Knowledge of the topic materials will be enough to answer them.

20. Possible the following test questions on the content of a number of philosophical schools.

According to Buddhism:

a) About the four noble truths. Answer. This is a core concept in the teachings of Buddhism about human suffering, its causes and ways to eradicate it;

b) On the definition of the concept “Buda”. Answer. This concept means "Enlightenment" in Sanskrit;

c) About Buda’s real name. Answer. The founder of the teachings of Buddhism was named Siddhartha Gautama;

d) A work in which Buddhism was systematized. Answer:"Tipitaka" ("Three Baskets of Teachings");

e) About one of the main truths of the teachings of Buddhism. Answer:“Life is suffering”;

f) About the essence of human life. Answer. This is "Suffering";

g) About the goal of the Eightfold Good Path. Answer: achieving Nirvana;

h) About the purpose of knowledge. Answer: liberation from suffering;

j) About the “Middle Way”. Answer. This is the main idea of ​​the teachings of Buddhism;

i) About the first commandment of Buddhism. Answer:“Life is suffering”;

k) About the two main directions in Buddhism. Answer. These are Hinayana (small vehicle) and Mahayana (great vehicle);

m) About the difference between Buddhism and other world religions. Answer: the absence of the idea of ​​“God the creator” and the concept of “the immortality of the soul”;

For other schools:

a) About the founder of the teaching “Jainism”. Answer: Mahavira Vardhamane;

b) About the definition of the word “Gina”. Answer. Means winner;

c) About “Charvak-Lokoyat”. Answer. This school was a representative of the materialist trend in philosophy;

d) About the origins of the world in the teaching of “Charvaka-Lokoyata”. Answer. These were Earth, Water, Fire and Air;

21. About some concepts used in the teachings of philosophical schools:

A) Meditation– entering a state of contemplation;

b) Asceticism– action aimed at self-restraint and abstinence in satisfying needs by “mortification of the flesh” and renunciation of earthly goods, in order to achieve a moral or religious ideal;

V) Nirvana– in the philosophy of Buddhism, the achievement of all ultimate goals, liberation from suffering;

22.ABOUTMahatma Gandhi. Answer. His name was Mahandas Karashchand, 1869-1948, was the leader of the Indian national liberation movement. The main teaching of “Gandhism” is achieving independence through peaceful non-violent means, by involving the broad masses in the struggle .

Material for topic No. 3. Philosophy of Ancient China

Target lectures: study the history of the origin and development of Chinese philosophical thought, the main stages of its genesis, the content of its ontology, epistemology and political and ethical orientation. Reveal the specifics of the philosophical thought of Ancient China, the features of its subject area, the historical types of the main philosophical schools and directions.

Main questions

Origins, features and main stages of the genesis of Chinese philosophy.

Concepts and terms used in Chinese natural philosophy. Subject area of ​​Chinese natural philosophy.

The main schools and directions of Chinese philosophy, the content of their philosophical thought.

Key words and concepts:Tao – cosmic and moral principle; De - transformed Tao ; "Tao Te Jin" - book about Taoism; Ren –"philanthropy"; « AND" – moral principles of a perfect person; Yin Yang – in a broad sense, opposing forces, duality; "I Ching" - “Book of Changes” - a book of fortune telling ; Lee – ritual, rule, ceremonial ; "Lun Yu" - Confucius's disciples' book about their teacher "Conversations and Judgments" ; Zhi- wisdom, knowledge, intelligence, intelligence; Xiao- ethical principle of Confucianism; Tien- Sky; "Wu Xing" - five primary elements of the universe ; "Wu-wei" -"the principle of non-action"; Qi or Yuanqi-"prime matter "; Jun-tzu- Confucian ideal of man; "Xiao" - filial piety and paternal care; "Kuan" - generosity; "Di" - respect for elders. "Zhu" - defines philosophy as a science, and also implies scientists and educated intellectuals; Wen – culture, writing and literature; Jia – family, family hearth.

1) Veda (Sanskrit Véda - “knowledge”, “teaching”) - a collection of ancient (25 thousand years BC) sacred scriptures of Hinduism in Sanskrit according to the Shruti method (from what was heard).

2) Structure (the Vedas were divided by the ancient Indian poet and sage Vyasa)

1. Samhitas (religious songs about rituals)

2. Brahmanas (books written by servants of Brahma)

3. Aranyaki (forest lyrics of hermit songs)

4. Upanishads (the main essence of the Vedas is stated (the concept of Brahman and the individual soul - Atman) - therefore they are also called “Vedanta” (the end, completion of the Vedas) and they are the basis of Vedantic Hinduism)

Types of Upanishads: classical (7th century BC) and false (non-classical)

3) Key Ideas

The idea of ​​the absolute (the origin of existence).

“The Absolute is Brahman”:

· Brahman is a living being, the father of all things, in its highest manifestations acts as a kind of universal Atman (immortal soul)

· Thought (reflection)

Prana (breath, energy)

Brahman created all things from himself .

Everything that exists contains Brahman (pantheism)

Life is eternal, because its source is Brahman.

The idea of ​​God.

· God is the firstborn (born of Brahma). Gods n. Asuras (negative) and Devas (positive)

· The gods did not at first possess immortality. Immortality is an acquired quality as a result of evolution (the life of the Gods - cosmic cycles), after the creation of the drink of immortality “Sacred Amrita”

3. The idea of ​​immortality of the individual soul (Atman).

· Atman is neither born nor dies

· There is no death - life is endless

4. The idea of ​​eternity and the cycle of life (like the wheel of Samsara).

· Death as a change in life form.

· Cycle: heavenly water, atma, earthly water (mortal)

5. The idea of ​​karma (“kar” in this case is action).

· Basis on the universality of relationships, laws of cause and effect.

· Thought is the main determining factor of karma. “As we think, so we become” - Upanishad.

· Every phenomenon has its causes and consequences. According to the law of karma, consequences return to the one who performs the action.

Karma is inevitable and is not identified with fate.

6. The idea of ​​many inhabited worlds that we can acquire according to the law of karma.

Material (lower)

· Spiritual (highest)

7. The idea of ​​a righteous path leading to merger with the absolute (Brahma) (yoga).

Yoga is the path of merging the individual soul with the deity, acquiring Brahma, entering the path of immortality, achieving a higher state in which the senses, thought, and mind are inactive, and a person is concentrated.

4) School classification

1. Orthodox(the only, unconditional authority of the Vedas as a source of supreme knowledge)

· Sankhya

The essence: there are two principles in the world: prakriti (matter) and purusha (spirit). The goal of Samkhya philosophy is the abstraction of spirit from matter.

· Yoga

Essence: The goal is control of the mind through meditation (dhyana), awareness of the difference between reality and illusion and achieving liberation.

· Mimamsa (early)

Essence: the goal is to clarify the nature of dharma, understood as the obligatory performance of a set of rituals performed in a certain way. The nature of dharma is not accessible to reasoning or observation.

· Mimamsa (late) = Vedanta

Essence: Mainly focuses on self-realization - the individual's understanding of his original nature and the nature of the Absolute Truth - in its personal aspect as Bhagavan or in its impersonal aspect as Brahman.

· Nyaya

Essence: examines mainly the conditions of correct thinking and the means of knowing reality. Recognizes the existence of four independent sources of true knowledge: perception, inference, comparison and evidence.

· Vaisesika

The bottom line: while recognizing the Buddhist point of view on the sources of knowledge: perception and logical inference, Vaisesika at the same time believes that souls and substances are immutable facts. She does not associate herself with problems of theology.

2. Unorthodox(besides the Vedas, other sources of knowledge)

· Buddhism

Essence: Buddha came to the conclusion that the cause of people’s suffering is their own actions and that suffering can be stopped and nirvana achieved through the practice of self-restraint and meditation.

Four Noble Truths:

About suffering (throughout life)

The cause of suffering (the desire to satisfy needs)

The end of suffering (renunciation of desires)

middle way

· Jainism

Essence: Calls for spiritual improvement through the development of wisdom and self-control. The goal of Jainism is to discover the true nature of the human soul. Perfect perception, perfect knowledge and perfect conduct, known as the “three jewels of Jainism,” are the path to liberating the human soul from samsara (the cycle of birth and death).

· Lokayata (Charvaka)

The essence: the universe and everything that exists happened naturally, without the intervention of otherworldly forces. There are four elements: earth, water, fire and air. They are eternal and are the fundamental principle of all things.

Ticket 6: Philosophy of Ancient China: Basics
philosophical ideas and schools.

Ancient Chinese philosophy emerges and develops from the 7th to the 3rd centuries BC. The Zhanguo period in the history of ancient China is often called the “golden age of Chinese philosophy.” It was during this period that concepts and categories emerged, which would then become traditional for all subsequent Chinese philosophy, right up to modern times.

Ideas of Taoism

The main idea of ​​Taoism is the assertion that everything is subordinate to Tao, everything arises from Tao and everything returns to Tao. Tao is the universal Law and the Absolute. Even the great Heaven follows the Tao. To know the Tao, to follow it, to merge with it - this is the meaning, purpose and happiness of life. Tao manifests itself through its emanation - de. If a person knows the Tao and follows it, then he will achieve immortality. To do this you need:

Ø Firstly, the nutrition of the spirit: a person is an accumulation of numerous spirits - divine forces, to which the heavenly spirits corresponded. Heavenly spirits keep track of a person's good and evil deeds and determine his life span. Thus, nourishing the spirit is performing virtuous deeds.

Ø Secondly, it is necessary to nourish the body: adherence to a strict diet (the ideal was the ability to feed on one’s own saliva and inhale the ether of dew), physical and breathing exercises, and sexual practice.

This path to immortality was long and difficult, and not accessible to every person. Therefore, there is a desire to simplify it by creating a miraculous elixir of immortality. Emperors and representatives of the nobility especially needed this. The first emperor who wished to achieve immortality with the help of the elixir was the famous Qin-shi-huangdi, who sent expeditions to distant countries to search for the components necessary for the elixir.

Philosophical schools

1. Taoism - the universe is a source of harmony, therefore everything in the world, from plants to humans, is beautiful in its natural state. The best ruler is the one who leaves people alone. Representatives of this period: Lao Tzu, Le Tzu, Chuang Tzu, Yang Zhu; Wen Tzu, Yin Xi. Representatives of later Taoism: Ge Hong, Wang Xuanlan, Li Quan, Zhang Boduan.

2. Confucianism (rujia) - the ruler and his officials should govern the country according to the principles of justice, honesty and love. Ethical rules, social norms, and regulation of the governance of an oppressive centralized state were studied. Representatives: Confucius, Zengzi, ZiSi, YuZho, Zi-gao, Mencius, Xunzi.

3. Moism (mojia) - the meaning of the teaching was the ideas of universal love (jian ai) and prosperity, everyone should care about mutual benefit. Representatives: Mo Tzu, Qin Huali, Meng Sheng, Tian Xiang Tzu, Fu Dun.

4. Legalism - dealt with problems of social theory and public administration. The idea of ​​universal equality. Representatives: Shen Buhai, Li Kui, Wu Qi, ShangYang, Han Feizi; Shen Dao is often included here as well.

5. School of names (mingjia) - the discrepancy between the names of the essence of things leads to chaos. Representatives: Deng Xi, Hui Shi, Gongsun Long; Mao-kung.

6. School of “yin-yang” (yinyangjia) (natural philosophers). Yin is heavy, dark, earthly, feminine. Yang is a light, bright, heavenly, masculine principle. Their harmony is a condition for the normal existence of the world, and imbalance leads to natural disasters. Representatives: Tzu-wei, ZouYan, Zhang Tsang.

Ticket 7: Teachings on Tao, Te and Wu Wei by Laozi.

"Tao Te Ching" is the fundamental treatise of the philosophy of Taoism. Most modern researchers date the Tao Te Ching to the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. The authorship is attributed to Lao Tzu (Li Er, Li Dan, Li Bo-Yan) - lived at the end of the 7th - first half of the 6th century. BC. (according to some sources, date of birth is 604 BC). He was a princely official and was in charge of the archives.

DAO: Tao is the “path”, the essence of all things and the total existence of the universe.

Tao incorporeal and not amenable to sensory perception, it is everywhere and nowhere, formless and nameless, endless and eternal, empty but inexhaustible. It is the progenitor of everything, including the gods.

Tao (according to the summary) is the natural path, the law of all things.

DE: On the one hand, Te is what feeds Tao, makes it possible (option of the opposite: Tao feeds Te, Tao is limitless, Te is defined). This is a kind of universal force, a principle with the help of which the Tao way of things can take place.

De is the art of correctly using life energy, correct behavior. But De is not morality in the narrow sense. De goes beyond common sense, encouraging a person to release life force from the path of everyday life.

De (according to the summary) is what feeds and nurtures universal qualities, attributes of Tao.

Lao Tzu O Te

“Creating and nurturing what exists; creating, not possessing what is created; setting in motion, not putting effort into it; leading, not considering oneself a ruler - this is what is called the deepest De.”

“A person with higher Te does not strive to do good deeds, therefore he is virtuous; a person with lower Te does not give up the intention to do good deeds, therefore he is not virtuous; a person with higher Te is inactive and carries out inaction; a person with lower Te is active, and his actions are deliberate ".

“De appears only after the loss of Tao; philanthropy - after the loss of De.”

Wu-Wei: Wu-Wei is contemplative passivity. This word is often translated as “inaction.” The most important quality of non-action is the absence of reasons for action. There is no thinking, no calculation, no desire. Between the inner nature of a person and his action in the world there are no intermediate steps at all. The action occurs suddenly and, as a rule, reaches the goal in the shortest way, since it is based on perception here and now. Such a world-being is characteristic only of enlightened people, whose minds are soft, disciplined and completely subordinate to the deep nature of man.

According to Lao Tzu, “If anyone wants to master the world and manipulates it, he will fail. For the world is a sacred vessel that cannot be manipulated. If anyone wants to manipulate him, he will destroy him. If anyone wants to appropriate it, he will lose it.”

Wu Wei is not a complete renunciation of action. This is a refusal of emotional involvement in action, and only as a consequence - minimization of the actions performed.

Ticket 8: Ancient philosophy: features
development and basic schools.

Ancient philosophy emerges in the 7th – 8th centuries. BC. during the formation of a slave society. It arises and develops in large economic centers and city-states located at the intersection of important trade routes.

Ancient philosophy arises on the basis of intensive processing of mythological ideas about the world and man.

The mythological idea and the related religious idea gradually give way to philosophy, which is distinguished by the desire for a rational theoretical justification of the positive knowledge that the first philosophers possessed (Babylon, Ancient Egypt).

The main methods of this philosophy are observation and reflection on the results of observations in nature.

Three stages in the development of ancient philosophy:

Ø Early period (Pre-Socratic) (VII-first half of the 5th century BC) - Pythagorean, Miletus, Eleatic schools, school of ancient dialectics (Heraclitus)

Ø Classical period (V – IV centuries BC) - Schools of Aristotle, Anaxagoras, Empedocles and Plato, schools of sophists and atomists

Ø Hellenistic era (IV century BC – 528 BC) – Eclecticism, Skepticism, Philosophy of Epicurus, Skepticism, Hedonism.

Description of schools:

1. Pythagorean. Pythagoras of Samos, Empedocles, Philolaus. Everything is like a number and can be expressed mathematically. The celestial spheres revolve around the Central Fire.

2. Eleatic. Parmenides, Zeno, Melissus. The focus is on being. Only it exists - there is no non-existence at all. Thinking and being are one and the same thing. Being fills everything, it has nowhere to move and cannot be divided.

3. Miletus. Thales of Miletus, Anaximander, Anaximenes. Based on the position “something does not come from nothing” (the modern law of conservation), they assumed the existence of a certain fundamental principle of everything. Thales called it water, Anaximenes called it air, and Anaximander called it apeiron. The Milesians assumed that the world was animated; everything has a soul, it’s just that in the “animate” there is more of it, and in the “inanimate” - less, but it permeates everything.

4. School of Heraclitus. Heraclitus of Ephesus did not have direct disciples, but had many followers at all times. He considered the world to be an ever-moving creation of fire (his phrase is “everything flows, everything changes”), and the struggle and war of opposites is the cause of all change. Heraclitus was called the Gloomy for the gloom of his views, his vision of war in everything.

5. Aristotle's school. The soul is the entelechy of the body (entelechy is the internal force that contains the final goal and result). The root cause of movement is God.

6. School of Anaxagoras. Anaxagoras proclaimed that the basis of everything are small “seeds” (Aristotle later called them “homeomeries”). There are countless types of them, and some global Mind organizes them into the bodies of the visible world. Interestingly, Anaxagoras tried to explain phenomena like eclipses and earthquakes by natural causes, and for this he was convicted of insulting the gods and sentenced to death, but was saved through the efforts of his friend and student Pericles.

7. School of Empedocles. Empedocles believed that the world is based on four elements - fire, water, air and earth, and everything is obtained by mixing these elements, or “roots”. Specifically, bone is made up of two parts water, two parts earth, and four parts fire. But the “roots” are passive principles, and the active principles are Love and Hate, the interaction and correlation of which determines all changes.

8. Plato's school. Plato believed the soul to be immortal, unlike the body, and identified three principles in it: Reasonable, Volitional and Passionate. He considered dialectics (in the sense of constructive debate) to be the main method of philosophy.

9. School of Sophists. Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodicus, etc. Representatives of the school had different moral and political views. They were united by the idea that any thing can be described in different ways, a penchant for philosophical play on words and the creation of paradoxes, the belief that everything is relative, nothing is absolute, and man is the measure of all things. Many were atheists and agnostics.

10. School of atomists. Leucippus stood at the origins of the school of atomists; his teaching was developed by Democritus. This amazing sage said that all bodies consist of tiny particles - atoms, between which there is emptiness. He also implied the presence in a person of a soul, which is also a collection of special atoms and is mortal with the body. “Only in general opinion there is color, in opinion there is sweet, in opinion there is bitter, but in reality there are only atoms and emptiness.”

11. Eclecticism. Its representatives, Cicero, Varro and others, tried to create a perfect philosophical system based on a combination of already existing systems, choosing from them the most reasonable conclusions, in their opinion. In some ways, the general acceptance of such a combinative system marks the decline of philosophical thought.

12. Stoicism. The teachings of Zeno of Citium (not the one in Eleatic, another). The doctrine of predestination, which must be followed by suppressing passions. Pleasure, aversion, lust and fear must be rejected. The ideal of the Stoics is the imperturbable sage. Such stars as Seneca and Marcus Aurelius, the philosopher emperor, belonged to the school.

13. Skepticism. Pyrrho, Enisidemus. The teaching of skeptics is that you cannot be sure of the existence of anything. And since you cannot be sure of the existence of a thing, then you need to treat it as something apparent, calmly and calmly. Ten reasons justifying a skeptical attitude (ten skeptical paths of Enisedem).

14. Hedonism. The teaching that the main thing in life and the highest good is pleasure.

15. Epicureanism. A special case of hedonism. “Pleasure is the highest good.” This is a teaching that did not set as its goal finding the truth, but only the practical side of happiness. Epicurus' "fourfold remedy": do not fear the gods, do not fear death, good is easily achieved, evil is easily endured.